Predictive model for chloroform during disinfection of water for consumption,city of Montevideo

The objective of this study was to predict chloroform formation resulting from the process of disinfecting water, particularly trihalomethane which is most frequently produced. A statistical model was used which included repeated measurements of water parameters used for monitoring water quality at 51 sites covering the municipal water system of Montevideo. Samples were taken considering different seasons from June 2009 to July 2011 in Montevideo. Total samples (n?=?330) were analytically studied using the headspace-gas chromatography method coupled with mass spectrometry. Chloroform was the dependent variable and the covariables were pH, temperature, free chlorine, and total chlorine. A Tobit analysis with an unstructured correlation matrix was performed, and a significant interaction was found between pH and free chlorine for the prediction of chloroform formation. We concluded that parameters for the continuous control of water quality for consumption can be used to predict the levels of chloroform that may be present. Given the large measurement to variability found in the repeated measurements, the use of averages that include more than one season is not recommended to determine the degree of compliance with acceptable levels established by norms.     

Influence of prairie restoration on CT-measured soil pore characteristics

Restored prairies are expected to improve soil physical properties, yet little is known about the extent of change to soil properties and how rapidly these changes take place. The objective of this study was to compare effects of prairie restoration on computed tomography (CT)-measured pore parameters. Undisturbed soil cores (76 mm diam. by 76 mm long) from native prairie (NP), restored prairie (RP), conservation reserve program (CRP), and no-till corn (Zea mays L.)-soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.; CS) sites were collected with six replicates from the 0- to 40-cm depth in 10-cm increments. Five CT images were acquired from each soil core using a medical CT scanner with 0.2 by 0.2 mm pixel resolution with 0.5 mm slice thickness, and then images were analyzed. Soil bulk density and hydraulic conductivity (K(sat)) were also measured. Soils under NP, RP, CRP, and CS areas had 83, 43, 48, and 26 pores on a 2500 mm(2) area, respectively, for the 0- to 40-cm depth. The number of pores, number of macropores (>1000 microm diam.), macroporosity, mesoporosity (200-1000 microm diam.), and fractal dimension were significantly higher and pore circularity was lower for NP, RP, and CRP than the CS treatment. The CT-measured mesoporosity and macroporosity of the CS treatment were 20 and 18% of the values for the NP site. CT-measured number of pores and macropores explained 43 and 40% of the variation for K(sat). The study showed that prairie restoration improves CT-measured soil pore parameters and decreases bulk density which are related to soil water infiltration.     

Emergency department visits by pediatric patients sustained as a passenger on a motorcycle

Objective: Currently only 5 out of the 50 states in the United States have laws restricting the age of passengers permitted to ride on a motorcycle. This study sought to characterize the visits by patients under the age of 16 to U.S. emergency departments (EDs) for injuries sustained as a passenger on a motorcycle.

Methods: In this retrospective cohort study, data were obtained from the Nationwide Emergency Department Sample (NEDS) for the years 2006 to 2011. Pediatric patients who were passengers on a motorcycle that was involved in a crash were identified using International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision (ICD-9) External Cause of Injury codes. We also examined gender, age, disposition, regional differences, common injuries, and charges.

Results: Between 2006 and 2011 there were an estimated 9,689 visits to U.S. EDs by patients under the age of 16 who were passengers on a motorcycle involved in a crash. The overall average patient age was 9.4 years, and they were predominately male (54.5%). The majority (85%) of these patients were treated and released. The average charges for discharged patients were $2,116.50 and amounted to roughly $17,500,000 during the 6 years. The average cost for admission was $51,446 per patient and totaled over $54 million. The most common primary injuries included superficial contusions; sprains and strains; upper limb fractures; open wounds of head, neck, and trunk; and intracranial injuries.

Conclusion: Although there were only about 9,700 visits to U.S. EDs for motorcycle crashes involving passengers less than 16 years old for 2006 to 2011, the total cost of visits that resulted in either ED discharge or hospital admission amounted to over $71 million.     

Does hedgerow management on organic farms benefit small mammal populations?

Organic farming is a whole-farm management approach believed to encourage biodiversity by excluding the input of agrochemicals and introducing specific management regimes for non-crop habitats. We examined the impact of the hedgerow management regime encouraged for organic farms on small mammal populations, since small mammal numbers influence a range of species at higher trophic levels and, in particular, are key to the conservation of a range of mammalian and avian predators. We compared differences in management and structure of non-crop habitats at the farm-scale between organic and conventional farms, and used within-farm variations in hedgerow size to predict the effect of hedgerow size on small mammals on both farm types. There were no significant differences in the proportion of non-crop habitats between organic and conventional farms, although management differences produced larger hedgerows on organic farms and greater diversity of hedgerow growth stages. However, a difference in hedgerow size between the farm types did not have a significant effect on small mammal abundance or diversity. We conclude that increased hedgerow size is not benefiting small mammal populations on organic farms: significant gains in small mammal numbers may be more effectively achieved by increasing the area of non-crop habitats rather than by improving management regimes.     

Managing the nitrogen cycle to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from crop production and biofuel expansion

Public policies are promoting biofuels as an alternative to fossil fuel consumption in order to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. However, the mitigation benefit can be at least partially compromised by emissions occurring during feedstock production. One of the key sources of GHG emissions from biofuel feedstock production, as well as conventional crops, is soil nitrous oxide (N₂O), which is largely driven by nitrogen (N) management. Our objective was to determine how much GHG emissions could be reduced by encouraging alternative N management practices through application of nitrification inhibitors and a cap on N fertilization. We used the US Renewable Fuel Standards (RFS2) as the basis for a case study to evaluate technical and economic drivers influencing the N management mitigation strategies. We estimated soil N₂O emissions using the DayCent ecosystem model and applied the US Forest and Agricultural Sector Optimization Model with Greenhouse Gases (FASOMGHG) to project GHG emissions for the agricultural sector, as influenced by biofuel scenarios and N management options. Relative to the current RSF2 policy with no N management interventions, results show decreases in N₂O emissions ranging from 3 to 4 % for the agricultural sector (5.5–6.5 million metric tonnes CO₂?eq.?year^?1; 1 million metric tonnes is equivalent to a Teragram) in response to a cap that reduces N fertilizer application and even larger reductions with application of nitrification inhibitors, ranging from 9 to 10 % (15.5–16.6 million tonnes CO₂?eq.?year^?1). The results demonstrate that climate and energy policies promoting biofuel production could consider options to manage the N cycle with alternative fertilization practices for the agricultural sector and likely enhance the mitigation of GHG emissions associated with biofuels.     

Establishment of facultative sexuals

The existence of sex is one of the major unsolved problems in biology. We use computer simulations to model conditions in which sex may first become established. We develop an individual-based population model and show that a hypothetical facultative sex gene can fix, provided that the initial cost is low. It is demonstrated that the equilibrium fitness in the population increases with increasing population size and decreasing mutation rate. The probability of the establishment of the sex gene is found not to be directly related to the fitness difference between the asexual and sexual populations. This change in fitness on changing the parameters of the model is investigated.