Chemical defense: incorporation of diet-derived pyrrolizidine alkaloid into the integumental scales of a moth (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Utetheisa ornatrix</Emphasis>)

Summary. Evidence is presented that pyrrolizidine alkaloid acquired by Utetheisa ornatrix (Lepidoptera, Arctiidae) as a larva from Crotalaria foodplants is incorporated in part into the scales of the adult. A single forewing of a male or female moth may contain in the order of 6 to 13 g monocrotaline in its scale cover or about 1 to 2% of the moths systemic monocrotaline content. Based on estimates of the number of scales per forewing, the monocrotaline content of individual scales is calculated to be in the order of 0.1 and 0.2 ng monocrotaline per male and female scale, respectively. This amounts to concentrations of about 1 and 3%, values roughly at a par with the average systemic concentration (0.5-0.6%) previously determined for monocrotaline in Utetheisa. It is argued that the presence of pyrrolizidine alkaloid in the moths scale coating could account for the promptness with which adult Utetheisa are rejected by spiders. It is suggested further that chemical impregnation of scales with substances deterrent to predators may be more widespread among insects than generally assumed.     

A reliable indicator of female fecundity: the case of the yellow belly in<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Knipowitschia panizzae</Emphasis> (Teleostei: Gobiidae)

A large body of research has developed on male ornaments and their role in sexual selection while female ornaments have been less investigated. This study focused on the presence, function, and possible role of a sexually dimorphic nuptial trait as an indicator of female quality in a fish species presenting conventional sex roles: the yellow patch on the belly of Knipowitschia panizzae females. Aquarium spawning experiments demonstrated that this ornament is due to dermal pigments, is displayed only when the female is ready to spawn, and is switched off within minutes from the end of egg deposition. This sexual trait is variable in size among females and indicates female fecundity relative to her own body size. As a consequence, female yellow belly appears to be a reliable indicator of female quality as measured by current fecundity. Field data on natural nests highlights that males usually perform parental care on only one egg batch at a time. The modality of egg deposition suggests that males may be limited in their potential reproductive rates by environmental factors. Male limitations in egg care could favour male choosiness and the evolution of female nuptial displays.Communicated by R. Cattaneo-Vietti, Genova     

Reproduction and colony integration of the sea pen<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Virgularia juncea</Emphasis>

The distribution of fertile polyps, and the functional variations of polyps within sea-pen colonies, were investigated in Virgularia juncea, a species inhabiting shallow waters in the Penghu Islands, west of Taiwan. This gonochoristic species started gametogenesis between July and September, and mature gametes were broadcast in late summer the following year. Fertile pinnae and their constituent polyps were located in the middle region of the rachis; the upper and lower regions were infertile. Within the fertile regions, fecundity per centimeter decreased linearly toward the tips of the colonies. Abundant zooxanthellae were found in the upper part of the rachis; algal densities decreased down the axis of the colonies, and no algae were present in the lower part. New pinnae were generated only at the basal part of the rachis, They moved upward in relative position with growth of the colonies. These young pinnae near the peduncle were small and infertile. With time, they became fertile and started to harbor a few zooxanthellae. The old pinnae at the upper part of the rachis were large and infertile and contained numerous zooxanthellae. The tips of the colonies were often damaged, and the bare axial rods there were often fragile and could be easily broken off. The developmental gradient of pinnae (and their constituent polyps) along the axes of the colonies, coupled with the environmental gradient within a sea-pen colony, facilitates the functional differentiation within the rachis that may be an adaptation for inhabiting the interface between the water column and the sediment.Communicated by P.W. Sammarco, Chauvin     

Effects of dietary fatty acids on the reproductive success of the calanoid copepod<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Temora longicornis</Emphasis>

Egg production and hatching success of the copepod Temora longicornis were measured in laboratory experiments and in the field (North Sea). In the laboratory, ingestion of four algal species (Thalassiosira weissflogii, Phaeocystis globosa, Isochrysis sp. and Dunaliella tertiolecta) was followed and the content of fatty acids in the algae was determined. The two food types (T. weissflogii and Isochrysis sp.) that provided the highest ingestion of carbon and long chain fatty acids also resulted in the highest egg production rate (E_r) and hatching success (H%). In contrast, D. tertiolecta led to both low ingestion of carbon and long chain fatty acids, resulting in low reproductive success. There was a positive relationship between the amount of eicosapentaenoic fatty acid [20:5(n-3), EPA] ingested and E_r and H%, and of the ratio between docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic fatty acid [22:6(n-3)/20:5(n-3), DHA/EPA] in the ingested food and H%. In the field, chlorophyll a and specific fatty acids were measured and protists were enumerated, in order to investigate the link between these factors and the reproductive success of T. longicornis. Hatching time was found to be related to temperature and exceeded 120 h at 6°C. No relationship was found between chlorophyll a and reproductive success (E_r or H%). E_r correlated with the concentration of diatoms and ciliates, which were the dominating protists in early spring, indicating that food quantity was the limiting factor for E_r. As in the laboratory experiments, H% was dependent on the fatty acid DHA and the ratio of DHA/EPA, which indicates that the quality of eggs (H%) is linked to the quality of food.Communicated by M. Kühl, Helsingør     

Variation at local scales need not impede tests for broader scale patterns

Ecologists are not always mindful of the constraints imposed by their scale of observation and sometimes prematurely attempt broad generalisations or become mesmerised by local details depending on their predilections. We specifically chose a character that is known for its local and unpredictable variation (morphology of kelp) to test the effect of scale on our ability to determine spatial patterns. We compared the morphology of Ecklonia radiata between monospecific and mixed stands of canopy-forming algae across temperate Australia (>5,100 km coastal distance) within a hierarchy of several spatial scales. While E. radiata specimens were generally larger in monospecific than in mixed stands, we failed to observe differences in morphology between stands at many sites and locations. Despite substantial local variation, differences between stands became increasingly clear at broader scales. The frequency of inconsistent differences between stands was greatest at local scales (sites separated by kms), intermediate at intermediate scales (locations separated by 100s of kms) and least at regional scales (regions separated by 1,000s of kms). These observations support the idea that large scale patterns can emerge from apparent stochasticity at small scales, and that unaccountable variation at local scales need not impede tests for similar patterns at broader scales. Most ecologists work at scales where complexity tends to be greatest (i.e. local) and is likely to be explained by special and unique events. It is encouraging, therefore, to observe that patterns can emerge from complexity at local scales to provide new opportunities to answer some of the more interesting questions about the relative importance of processes across the vast parts of the worlds coast.Communicated by M.S. Johnson, Crawley     

Monitoring of waste deposit derived groundwater contamination with organic tracers

Specific anthropogenic substances derived from seepage and leakage water from a waste deposit landfill were analysed in groundwater and drainage effluents using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Here, we demonstrate the application of an organic marker approach to study lateral and vertical distribution of contamination as well as the long-term emission behaviour. Source-specific and environmentally-stable pesticides, plasticisers and pharmaceuticals, such as N,N-diethyl toluamide, N-butyl benzene sulfonamide, clofibric acid, mecoprop and bisphenol A, were quantitatively analysed. A distinct lateral expansion was detected. Although temporal variations were high, no significant trend was observed.     

Neighborhood Level Spatial Analysis of the Relationship Between Alcohol Outlet Density and Criminal Violence

Misuse of alcohol is a significant public health problem, potentially resulting in unintentional injuries, motor vehicle crashes, drownings, and, perhaps of greatest concern, serious acts of violence, including assaults, rapes, suicides, and homicides. Although previous research establishes a link between alcohol consumption increased levels of violence, studies relating the density of alcohol outlets (e.g., restaurants, bars, liquor stores) and the likelihood of violent crime have been less common. In this paper we test for such a relationship at the small area level, using data from 79 neighborhoods in the city of Minneapolis, Minnesota. We adopt a fully Bayesian point of view using Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) computational methods as available in the popular and freely available WinBUGS language. Our models control for important covariates (e.g., neighborhood racial heterogeneity, age heterogeneity) and also account for spatial association in unexplained variability using conditionally autoregressive (CAR) random effects. Our results indicate a significant positive relationship between alcohol outlet density and violent crime, while also permitting easy mapping of neighborhood-level predicted and residual values, the former useful for intervention in the most at-risk neighborhoods and the latter potentially useful in identifying covariates still missing from the fixed effects portion of the model.     

Effect of surfactants on Fenton's reagent-mediated degradation of Kraft black liquor

One of the limitations of the biodegradation of hydrophobic chemical compounds, like lignins, is their low solubility in the aqueous solution where this process takes place. To resolve this problem, surfactants have been used to improve the solubility of these hydrophobic compounds. In this investigation, we studied the effect of surfactants (anionic, cationic, and non-ionic) on the treatment of Kraft black liquor with Fenton's reagent. In the Fenton reaction, H2O2 (two different concentrations, 10 mM and 20 mM), FeCl2 (1 mM) and surfactant solution (10%) were used. Black liquor degradation was determined by UV/Visible spectrophotometry and by measuring phenolic groups. In the presence of Fenton's reagent, the optimum conditions for the oxidative degradation of black liquor were 10 mM H2O2, 1 microL of 10% solution of anionic surfactant (SDS). The importance of the use of surfactants for preparing black liquor for subsequent Fenton's reagent-mediated degradation was discussed.     

Benefits of protected areas for nonbreeding waterbirds adjusting their distributions under climate warming

Climate warming is driving changes in species distributions and community composition. Many species have a so-called climatic debt, that is, shifts in range lag behind shifts in temperature isoclines. Inside protected areas (PAs), community changes in response to climate warming can be facilitated by greater colonization rates by warm-dwelling species, but also mitigated by lowering extirpation rates of cold-dwelling species. An evaluation of the relative importance of colonization-extirpation processes is important to inform conservation strategies that aim for both climate debt reduction and species conservation. We assessed the colonization-extirpation dynamics involved in community changes in response to climate inside and outside PAs. To do so, we used 25 years of occurrence data of nonbreeding waterbirds in the western Palearctic (97 species, 7071 sites, 39 countries, 1993–2017). We used a community temperature index (CTI) framework based on species thermal affinities to investigate species turnover induced by temperature increase. We determined whether thermal community adjustment was associated with colonization by warm-dwelling species or extirpation of cold-dwelling species by modeling change in standard deviation of the CTI (CTI_SD). Using linear mixed-effects models, we investigated whether communities in PAs had lower climatic debt and different patterns of community change than communities outside PAs. For CTI and CTI_SD combined, communities inside PAs had more species, higher colonization, lower extirpation, and lower climatic debt (16%) than communities outside PAs. Thus, our results suggest that PAs facilitate 2 independent processes that shape community dynamics and maintain biodiversity. The community adjustment was, however, not sufficiently fast to keep pace with the large temperature increases in the central and northeastern western Palearctic. Our results underline the potential of combining CTI and CTI_SD metrics to improve understanding of the colonization-extirpation patterns driven by climate warming.