Perfluoroalkyl compounds in Danish wastewater treatment plants and aquatic environments

This study reports the results of a screening survey of perfluoroalkyl compounds (PFCs) in the Danish environment. The study included point sources (municipal and industrial wastewater treatment plants and landfill sites) and the marine and freshwater environments. Effluent and influent water and sewage sludge were analysed for point sources. Sediment, blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) and liver from plaice (Pleuronectes platessa), flounder (Platichthys flesus) and eel (Anguilla anguilla) were analysed for the freshwater and marine environments. The results obtained show a diffuse PFCs contamination of the Danish environment with concentrations similar to those measured in other countries with the absence of primary contamination sources such as fluorochemical production. PFOS and PFOA were generally the most dominating PFCs measured in both point sources and the aquatic environments. PFCs were found in both inflow and outflow water and sewage sludge from municipal and industrial wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), indicating that WWTPs can be significant sources to PFCs in the environment. This is also reflected in the locally elevated PFCs concentrations found in fish like eels from shallow freshwater and marine areas. However, the highest PFCs concentrations found in fish in this study was in plaice from the Skagerrak (156 ng/g wet weight PFOS), but it is unknown if this can be related to significant sources in the North Sea region or to differences between species. The concentrations of PFCs were below the detection limit in all analysed freshwater and marine samples of sediment and mussels. Despite the relatively low PFCs concentrations measured in marine fish, the high bioaccumulation potential of PFCs, particularly PFOS, may lead to high concentrations of PFCs in marine mammals as shown by previous investigations.     

Decrease in water-soluble 17beta-Estradiol and testosterone in composted poultry manure with time

Little attention has been paid to the environmental fate of the hormones 17beta-estradiol and testosterone excreted in animal waste. Land application of manure has a considerable potential to affect the environment with these endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs). Composting is known to decompose organic matter to a stable, humus-like material. The goal of the present study was to quantitatively assess levels of water-soluble 17beta-estradiol and testosterone in composting chicken manure with time. Chicken layer manure was mixed with hay, straw, decomposed leaves, and starter compost, adjusted to approximately 60% moisture, and placed into a windrow. A clay-amended windrow was also prepared. Windrows were turned weekly, and temperature, oxygen, and CO(2) in the composting mass were monitored for either 133 or 139 d. Commercial enzyme immunoassay kits were used to quantitate the levels of 17beta-estradiol and testosterone in aqueous sample extracts. Water-soluble quantities of both hormones diminished during composting. The decrease in 17beta-estradiol followed first-order kinetics, with a rate constant k = -0.010/d. Testosterone levels declined at a slightly higher rate than 17beta-estradiol (i.e., k = -0.015/d). Both hormones could still be measured in aqueous extracts of compost sampled at the conclusion of composting. The decline in water-soluble 17beta-estradiol and testosterone in extracts of clay-amended compost was not statistically different from normal compost. These data suggest that composting may be an environmentally friendly technology suitable for reducing, but not eliminating, the concentrations of these endocrine disrupting hormones at concentrated animal operation facilities.     

CRITICAL ELEMENTS IN DESCRIBING AND UNDERSTANDING OUR NATION'S AQUATIC RESOURCES1

ABSTRACT: Despite spending $115 billion per year on environmental actions in the United States, we have only a limited ability to describe the effectiveness of these expenditures. Moreover, after decades of such investments, we cannot accurately describe status and trends in the nation's aquatic ecosystems or even those in specific regions. Why? This situation has arisen in part because we have excluded the fundamental principles of probability designs that are widely used in other fields and we have often ignored direct measures of biota, the subjects of greatest concern. To demonstrate the results of ignoring these powerful statistical and biological tools, we present four case studies. These studies compare estimates of aquatic resource status derived from using (1) a probability-based study design, often with biological measures of condition; and (2) a nonstatistical study design, often using chemical surrogates. In three of the four cases, the results derived from the nonstatistical perspective underestimate the degree of biological degradation.     

Abundance and population structure of perch (Perca fluviatilis L.) in some acidic Norwegian lakes

Abundance (catch per unit effort, n=3752) and population structure of perch Perca fluviatilis were studied in 30 acidic Norwegian lakes with relation to pH (4.3-5.9), calcium (0.41-2.44 mg litre(-1)), labile aluminium (24-255 microg litre(-1)) and total organic carbon (TOC, 1.7-13.8 mg C litre(-1)). Standard series of bottom gill-nets were used to sample fish populations. A multiple regression analysis showed that abundance was significantly correlated to TOC (P<0.05) and, to a smaller extent, to the Ca in lakes with concentrations between 0.41 and 1.70 mg litre(-1) (P=0.07). The lakes which were inhabited by pike were excluded from the analysis. Recruitment failure seems to be the main cause of reductions in perch numbers in the lakes studied. However, high mortality among adult individuals was also evident, and an episode of fish kill was observed in one of the lakes.     

Life cycle assessment of offset printed matter with EDIP97: how important are emissions of chemicals?

Existing product life cycle assessment (LCA) studies on offset printed matter all point at paper as the overall dominating cause of environmental impacts. All studies focus on energy consumption and the dominating role of paper is primarily based on the energy-related impact categories: global warming, acidification and nutrient enrichment. Ecotoxicity and human toxicity, which are related to emissions of chemicals, etc., are only included to a limited degree or not at all. In this paper we include the impacts from chemicals emitted during the life cycle of sheet fed offset printed matter. This is done by making use of some of the newest knowledge about emissions from the production at the printing industry combined with knowledge about the composition of the printing materials used. In cases with available data also upstream emissions from the production of printing materials are included. The results show that inclusion of the chemical emission-related impacts makes the EDIP97 impact profile of sheet fed offset products much more varied, as well for the normalised profiles as for the profiles weighted by distance to political environmental targets. Especially the ecotoxicity impact potential related to the production stage may contribute significantly, and the use of paper no longer becomes the overall dominating factor driving the environmental impacts.     

Decision support in urban water management based on generic scenarios: The example of NoMix technology

Urine source separation (NoMix technology) followed by processing the concentrated nutrient solution has the potential to become a cost-efficient alternative to conventional end-of-pipe nutrient elimination. A choice of processing technologies can only be made for specific scenarios, and there is currently no methodology for analyzing generic situations. In setting up a formalized decision-support methodology (based on STEEPLED analysis), we discuss how to create such generic scenarios, how to couple them with process engineering objectives, how to define the technology requirements, and finally how to produce a realistic subset of technology alternatives. The methodology is tested in five real scenarios. We also touch on the criteria for a final choice of technology taking into account large uncertainties about the performance of real technologies. We conclude that technology development is one of the most important requirements for implementing urine source separation in practice. There is an urgent need to develop cost-efficient processing technologies that satisfy the requirements of stakeholders.     

Calculating Air Quality and Its Control

Air quality is shown as a function of averaging times of five minutes to one year for carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, nitrogen oxides, oxidant, and sulfur dioxide in Chicago, Cincinnati, Los Angeles, New Orleans, Philadelphia, San Francisco, and Washington, D. C. Concentrations are approximately lognormally distributed for all pollutants in all cities for all averaging times. Maximum concentration is inversely proportional to averaging time to an exponent. The exponent is a function of the standard geometric deviation. General air quality and control parameters are derived and shown for one example, nitrogen oxides in Washington, D. C. These values are compared to one air quality standard.     

An Air Quality Data Analysis System for Interrelating Effects,Standards, and Needed Source Reductions: Part 6. Calculating Concentration Reductions Needed to Achieve the New National Ozone Standard

The new ozone National Ambient Air Quality Standard specifies that the expected number of days per calendar year that the 1 hour average ozone concentration can exceed 0.12 ppm must be equal to or less than 1. This paper describes a method to calculate design frequency, design concentration, and the percentage concentration reduction necessary to achieve this standard. The design frequency is once per year (1/365) if daily maximum hour ozone concentrations are available at a particular site for an equal number of days in summer (April through September) and winter (October through March). An equation is used to adjust design frequency as a function of the number of summer and winter samples available. The design concentration (the ambient concentration measured at the design frequency) needs to be reduced to 0.12 ppm. Graphical and digital methods for determining the design concentration are presented. Percentage concentration reductions needed to achieve the standard are calculated for each site which has ozone concentration data available in the National Aerometric Data Bank for at least half of the days in one summer of years 1975 through 1977. The degree of reduction calculated for the site with the highest concentrations in each county is indicated by shading on a map of the United States.