Sex- and age-related differences in the timing and body condition of migrating Reed Warblers Acrocephalus scirpaceus and Sedge Warblers Acrocephalus schoenobaenus

The migration strategies of birds may vary strongly between species and also between age and/or sex groups. We studied the autumn migration and body condition of molecularly sexed Reed Warblers Acrocephalus scirpaceus and Sedge Warblers Acrocephalus schoenobaenus (211 and 208 ind., respectively) at a stopover site on Lake Druzno, Northern Poland, in 2008. Immature male Reed Warblers were caught significantly later than females (median dates 9 days later), but in the Sedge Warbler, both sexes of immatures migrated at about the same time. Adult males and females of both species did not differ in their time of migration. Adult and immature males of both species were larger (wing length and body mass) than females. In both species, fat reserves were similar in both sexes of both age classes. Adults of both sexes of Reed and Sedge Warbler were generally caught earlier than immatures. In both species, the body mass and fat reserves of immatures were generally less than in adults. The autumn protogyny of immature Reed Warblers may allow smaller females to limit competition with bigger males during migration and at the wintering grounds. In the Sedge Warbler, which tends to match its migration to peak of occurrence of superabundant food at stopover sites, both sexes gain an advantage from migrating at the same time. Since part of the measured wing length variation in both species was explained by sex differences, temporal trends in wing length recorded at stopover sites should be interpreted with caution.     

Differential autumn migration of the aquatic warbler Acrocephalus paludicola

Relatively little attention has been paid to sex differences in the migration of birds in autumn. We studied the autumn migration strategy of molecularly sexed males and females in the globally threatened aquatic warbler Acrocephalus paludicola. We captured 176 birds at a stopover site in the Loire estuary at Donges, France. The median date for the passage of adults was 8 days earlier in males than females, although the timing of migration in first-year males and females was similar. This indicates that males, who are without parental duties, can start their migration earlier than females and first-year birds. Adults were significantly heavier than immature birds but did not have higher fat scores. In both age categories, more males (two to three times more) were captured. However, various factors (including tape-luring) can affect observed sex ratio.     

The Occurrence of Unfavorable Thermal Conditions on Human Health in Central Europe and Potential Climate Change Impacts: An Example from Cracow,Poland

Progressive global warming exerts strong influence on the lives and on the health of urban residents, many of who are weather sensitive people (meteoropaths). In the temperate zone, air temperature changes largely determine the seasonal oscillation of morbidity and mortality frequency. The present study analyzes the influence of air temperature on living conditions in central European urban areas, particularly Cracow (Poland), and examines this influence against the background of climate change. During the warmer months, there is a noticeable increase in the unfavorable occurrence of especially strong thermal stimuli (e.g., hot days) which can lead to overheating of the human organism. On the other hand, the increasing frequency of mild winters contributes to the appearance of weak and moderate thermal stimuli, which in the case of the former, is a negative phenomenon. Weak thermal stimuli are liable to make the human body oversensitive and, thus lose the ability to adapt if stronger thermal stimuli were to occur. Residents of large urban areas should be prepared for the possibility of dynamic weather changes and should take thermal variability into consideration with regards to spatial urban planning and socioeconomic activities.     

Input of heavy metals to the forest floor as a result of Cracow urban pollution

The influence of Cracow's urban pollution on small forest ecosystems was studied during 1998-2000. Seven sites located at different distances from the Cracow conurbation and from busy road were selected. Two sites were situated 26 and 31 km from Cracow town along an eastern transect, the other five-3, 8, 14, 26 and 35 km respectively, from Cracow-along a southern transect. At the beginning of September, five litter traps were set at each site. The quantity of litter fall, along with percentage composition of each species, were estimated for an area of 1 m(2). The concentration of Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn and Fe in the litter fall and the input of these metals to the forest floor were determined. The input of cadmium ranged from 84 microg m(-2) at Kornatka in 1998 to 382 microg m(-2) at Bonarka in 2000. The input of lead was about 10 times higher than cadmium and varied from 406 microg m(-2) at Weglówka in 1998 to 3717 microg m(-2) at Bonarka in 2000. Input of Cu, Zn and Fe to the forest floor showed the similar tendency. During 1998-2000, the highest heavy metal concentrations in the litter fall and their impact on the forest floor were always found at sites close to the Cracow conurbation and, in the eastern transect, close to a steel works. Input of metals to the forest floor tended to decrease with increasing distance from the centre of Cracow.     

Accumulation factors of mercury in mushrooms from Zaborski Landscape Park, Poland

Total mercury concentrations were determined by cold-vapour atomic absorption spectroscopy (CV-AAS) in 117 samples of caps, 117 of stalks and 47 of whole fruiting bodies of 13 species of wild mushrooms and in 164 underlying soil substrate collected from Zaborski Landscape Park during 1997 and 1998. The study area is a background, forested site with rural landscape and no known local sources of mercury emission. Mean mercury concentrations in mushrooms varied widely (range: 50 +/- 20 to 3700 +/- 1700 ng/g, dry matter) depending on the site and mushroom species investigated. However, mercury concentrations in soil samples varied less (range: 3.0 +/- 3.0 to 43 +/- 17 ng/g dry matter). Fruiting bodies of Common Puffball (Lycoperdon perlatum) and King Bolete (Boletus edulis) contained the greatest concentrations of mercury of 3700 +/- 1700 and 2600 +/- 1200 ng/g dry matter, respectively. A positive correlation existed between mercury concentrations in the caps of Slippery Jack (Suillus luteus) and Fly Agaric (Amanita muscaria) (p < 0.01) and mercury concentrations in corresponding soils. However, concentrations of mercury in The Sickener (Russula emetica) was negatively correlated with its soil substrate (p < 0.01). Bioconcentration factors (BCFs: concentrations ratios of mercury in mushroom to soil) of total mercury in whole fruiting bodies or caps were greatest for Common Puffball (L. perlatum), Larch Bolete (Suillus grevillei) and King Bolete (B. edulis) and varied between 130 +/- 78 and 160 +/- 120, while for the other species BCFs were between 4.0 +/- 6.0 and 61 +/- 20 in caps, and 4.4 +/- 3.1 and 70 +/- 68 in stalks. The concentration ratios of Hg in cap to stalk were from 1.1 +/- 0.5 for Poison Pax (Paxillus involutus) to 2.7 +/- 1.7 in Larch Bolete (S. grevillei).     

Global DNA methylation in earthworms: a candidate biomarker of epigenetic risks related to the presence of metals/metalloids in terrestrial environments

In this work, possible relationships between global DNA methylation and metal/metalloid concentrations in earthworms have been explored. Direct correlation was observed between soil and tissue As, Se, Sb, Zn, Cu, Mn, Ag, Co, Hg, Pb (p < 0.05). Speciation results obtained for As and Hg hint at the capability of earthworms for conversion of inorganic element forms present in soil to methylated species. Inverse correlation was observed between the percentage of methylated DNA cytosines and total tissue As, As + Hg, As + Hg + Se + Sb (β = −0.8456, p = 0.071; β = −0.9406, p = 0.017; β = −0.9526, p = 0.012 respectively), as well as inorganic As + Hg (β = −0.8807, p = 0.049). It was concluded that earthworms would be particularly helpful as bioindicators of elements undergoing in vivo methylation and might also be used to assess the related risk of epigenetic changes in DNA methylation.     

Mercury accumulation in the surface layers of mountain soils: a case study from the Karkonosze Mountains, Poland

The study was aimed to examine total concentrations and pools of Hg in surface layers of soils in the Karkonosze Mountains, dependent on soil properties and site locality. Soil samples were collected from a litter layer and the layers 0-10 cm and 10-20 cm, at 68 sites belonging to the net of a monitoring system, in two separate areas, and in three altitudinal zones: below 900 m, 900-1100 m, and over 1100 m. Air-borne pollution was the major source of mercury in soils. Hg has accumulated mainly in the litter (where its concentrations were the highest), and in the layer 0-10 cm. Hg concentrations in all samples were in the range 0.04-0.97 mg kg⁻¹, with mean values 0.38, 0.28, and 0.14 mg kg⁻¹ for litter and the layers 0-10 cm and 10-20 cm, respectively. The highest Hg concentrations in the litter layer were found in the intermediate altitudinal zone, whereas Hg concentrations in the layer 0-10 cm increased with increasing altitude. Soil quality standard for protected areas (0.50 mg kg⁻¹) was exceeded in a few sites. The pools of Hg accumulated in soils were in the range: 0.8-84.8 mg m⁻², with a mean value of 16.5 mg m⁻², and they correlated strongly with the pools of stored organic matter.     

Determination and analysis of PM10 source apportionment during episodes of air pollution in Central Eastern European urban areas: The case of wintertime 2006

Source apportionment of air pollution due to particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter <10 μm (PM₁₀) was investigated in Central Eastern European urban areas. A combination of four methods was developed to distinguish long-range transport (LRT) and regional transport (RT) from local pollution (LP) sources as well as to discern the involvement of traffic or residential sources in LP. Sources of PM₁₀ events of pollution were determined in January 2006 in representative Polish cities using monitored air quality and meteorological data, backward air mass trajectories, correlation and principal component analysis (PCA). Daily patterns of PM₁₀ levels show that several peak episodes were registered in Poland; January 21–30th being the most polluted days. Air mass back-trajectory analysis shows that all cities were under the influence of LRT from North-eastern origins (Russia–Belarus–Ukraine), most were also under LRT from Southern origin (Slovakia, Czech Republic), and northern cities were under national RT influence. PCA analysis shows that ion-sums of secondary inorganic aerosols account for LRT pollution while arsenic and chromium represents markers of RT (industrial) and LP (residential) sources of PM₁₀, respectively. Determination of several ratios (REG/UB, REG/TRAF, TRAF/UB) calculated between PM₁₀ levels measured at regional background (REG); urban background (UB) and traffic (TRAF) monitoring sites shows that, with ratios REG/UB ≥ 0.57, PM₁₀ episodes in both Szczecin and Warsaw bore a marked RT origin. The lower REG/UB ≤ 0.35 in the Southern cities of Cracow and Zabrze indicates that LP was the main contributor to the observed episodes. Only PM₁₀ episodes in Southern-western Poland (Jelenia Góra) were clearly of LP origin as characterized, by the lowest REG/UB ratio (<0.2). The high TRAF/UB ratios obtained for all cities (close to 1) indicate that there was a great uniformity of PM levels on an urban scale owing to the meteorologically stagnant conditions. A high correlation between PM₁₀, NO₂ and CO confirms that traffic emission represented a common and an important LP source of urban pollution in most Polish cities during January 2006. On the other hand PM₁₀ which is also highly correlated with SO₂ in 4 cities out of 6, indicates that coal combustion through domestic heating or industrial activities was also an important LP source of PM₁₀. Finally, extremely unfavourable meteorological conditions caused by the influence of a Siberian high-pressure system were found to be associated with the occurrence of severe PM₁₀ episodes of pollution.