Temperament in bullheads: do laboratory and field explorative behaviour variables correlate?

The relevance of temperament traits for life history strategy or productivity is increasingly acknowledged. Temperament traits are often either observed in captivity or in the wild, but studies combining both observations are very rare. We examine whether exploratory behaviour in the bullhead (Cottus perifretum), assayed under laboratory conditions, predicts this behaviour under field conditions. Forty-three PIT-tagged individuals were first assayed for exploration of a novel environment in the aquarium and then released into an unfamiliar stream stretch, where they were later relocated using a mobile antenna. Explorative behaviour assayed in the laboratory was significantly positively related to the exploration in the field, thus predicting distance moved in the field release. Both in the laboratory and in the field, explorative behaviour was not related to individual body length. When bullheads that did not leave the refuge in the aquarium (laboratory assay) and, therefore, did not explore the new environment were excluded from the analysis, the correlation between laboratory and field explorative behaviour variables became weaker. However, overall, our results illustrate that exploration rate of bullheads in isolated single-individual experiments can be used to predict this behaviour in the natural ecosystem.     

Linking Russia with the European and global greenhouse gas emissions trading markets: three paths for greening the Russian assigned amount under the Kyoto Protocol

This article examines possibilities for linkage between the European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) and Russia, with a view to enhancing cooperation on a broader scale than the project-based approaches that have been tested thus far. Three paths for possible EU-Russia linkage are presented by which the Russian Assigned Amount under the Kyoto Protocol can be greened in order to stimulate emissions trading: 1. Joint implementation—reductions earned via individual projects in Russia; 2. Greened allowances or green investment schemes; and 3. Linked cap-and-trade systems, in which a Russian domestic emissions trading system would link with the European Union Emissions Trading System. The authors conclude that the third option, emissions trading through linked domestic emissions trading systems, offers the best opportunities at the lowest transaction costs. The authors discuss useful innovative instruments like call options and slip level arrangements on government-to-government and business-to-business levels.

Error Assessment for Height Above the Nearest Drainage Inundation Mapping

Real‐time flood inundation mapping is vital for emergency response to help protect life and property. Inundation mapping transforms rainfall forecasts into meaningful spatial information that can be utilized before, during, and after disasters. While inundation mapping has traditionally been conducted on a local scale, automated algorithms using topography data can be utilized to efficiently produce flood maps across the continental scale. The Height Above the Nearest Drainage method can be used in conjunction with synthetic rating curves (SRCs) to produce inundation maps, but the performance of these inundation maps needs to be assessed. Here we assess the accuracy of the SRCs and calculate statistics for comparing the SRCs to rating curves obtained from hydrodynamic models calibrated against observed stage heights. We find SRCs are accurate enough for large‐scale approximate inundation mapping while not as accurate when assessing individual reaches or cross sections. We investigate the effect of terrain and channel characteristics and observe reach length and slope predict divergence between the two types of rating curves, and SRCs perform poorly for short reaches with extreme slope values. We propose an approach to recalculate the slope in Manning’s equation as the weighted average over a minimum distance and assess accuracy for a range of moving window lengths.     

Aquatic Plant and Dissolved Oxygen Changes in a Reference‐Condition Prairie Stream Subjected to Experimental Nutrient Enrichments

Effects of controlled nutrient additions on a prairie stream were studied using a before‐after‐control‐impact paired design. The site is in a reference condition with low soluble nitrate (NO₃) and phosphate (soluble reactive phosphorus [SRP]) in summer (3 μg NO₃‐N/L, 4 μg SRP/L). Nutrients were added to two reaches over the growing season at two levels (Low Dose — 39 μg NO₃‐N/L and 4.4 SRP/L; High Dose — 119 μg NO₃‐N/L and 15.6 μg SRP/L). Continuously measured dissolved oxygen (DO) and changes in aquatic flora were compared to an upstream Control. Enrichment led microalgae and filamentous algae to increase in density, areal coverage, and thickness, and the magnitude of the changes were largely concordant with dosing (more in the High Dose); algal growth also suppressed macrophytes in the High Dose. Enrichment caused significant increases in diel DO swings whose magnitudes were consistent with dosing level. In the High Dose, benthic algae flourished in the growing season and then senesced en masse in fall. The decomposing algae led DO to crash (ca. 0 mg/L on the bottom), but DO impacts were out‐of‐sync with peak algal growth and photosynthesis, which occurred weeks earlier. This finding provides a plausible explanation as to why high DO delta in streams impacts aquatic life even when concurrently measured DO is not low. When DO crashed, DO was longitudinally patchy, some areas having low DO near the bottom, others near saturation. Geomorphology and exposure to wind may have caused this pattern.     

Runoff Storage Potential of Drained Upland Depressions on the Des Moines Lobe of Iowa

We present estimates of the volumetric storage capacities of currently drained upland depressions and catchment depressional specific storage and runoff storage indices for the Des Moines Lobe of Iowa (DML‐IA) subregion of the Prairie Pothole Region of North America. Storage capacities were determined using hydrologically enforced Light Detection and Ranging‐derived digital elevation models, and a unique geoprocessing algorithm. Depressional specific storage was estimated for each 12‐digit Hydrologic Unit Code (HUC12) watershed in the region from total catchment‐specific depressional storage volume and catchment area. Runoff storage indices were calculated using catchment depressional specific storage values and estimates of the amount of rainfall likely to fall within each watershed during sub‐annual and 1‐, 2‐, 5‐, and 10‐year 24‐h events. The 173,171 identified drained depressions in the DML‐IA can store up to 903.5 Mm³ of runoff. Most of this capacity is in depressions located in the north of the region. Specific storage varies from nearly 109 mm in the younger landscapes to <10 mm in older more eroded areas. For 95% of the HUC12 watersheds comprising the region, depressional storage will likely be exhausted by rainfall‐derived runoff in excess of a 1‐year 24‐h event. Rainfall amounts greater than a 5‐year 24‐h event will exceed all available depressional storage. Therefore, the capacity of drained depressions in the DML‐IA to mitigate flooding resulting from infrequent, but large, storm events is limited.     

Case Study and Retrospective: Aerobic Fixed Film Biological Treatment Process for 1,4‐Dioxane at the Lowry Landfill Superfund Site

An aerobic fixed film biological treatment system has been successfully treating recovered groundwater/landfill leachate containing 1,4‐dioxane, tetrahydrofuran (THF), and other constituents since 2003. The most likely mode of 1,4‐dioxane biotransformation is via a cometabolic pathway in the presence of THF. Pilot studies conducted during the process development phase established a design basis process loading factor of 0.6 g 1,4‐dioxane and THF (as chemical oxygen demand [COD])/g total solids per day and proved the efficacy of the process. Full‐scale design includes the use of three parallel moving bed bioreactors with effluent recycle capability. Removal efficiencies in excess of 98 percent have been documented for 1,4‐dioxane. Evolving operational challenges are associated with recent trends in 1,4‐dioxane pretreatment discharge limitations in combination with ongoing process optimization and increased influent flow rate conditions associated with seasonal precipitation patterns. ©2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

How do children learn to cross the street? The process of pedestrian safety training

Objective: Pedestrian injuries are a leading cause of child death and may be reduced by training children to cross streets more safely. Such training is most effective when children receive repeated practice at the complex cognitive–perceptual task of judging moving traffic and selecting safe crossing gaps, but there is limited data on how much practice is required for children to reach adult levels of functioning. Using existing data, we examined how children's pedestrian skills changed over the course of 6 pedestrian safety training sessions, each composed of 45 crossings within a virtual pedestrian environment.

Methods: As part of a randomized controlled trial on pedestrian safety training, 59 children ages 7–8 crossed the street within a semi-immersive virtual pedestrian environment 270 times over a 3-week period (6 sessions of 45 crossings each). Feedback was provided after each crossing, and traffic speed and density were advanced as children's skill improved. Postintervention pedestrian behavior was assessed a week later in the virtual environment and compared to adult behavior with identical traffic patterns.

Results: Over the course of training, children entered traffic gaps more quickly and chose tighter gaps to cross within; their crossing efficiency appeared to increase. By the end of training, some aspects of children's pedestrian behavior was comparable to adult behavior but other aspects were not, indicating that the training was worthwhile but insufficient for most children to achieve adult levels of functioning.

Conclusions: Repeated practice in a simulated pedestrian environment helps children learn aspects of safe and efficient pedestrian behavior. Six twice-weekly training sessions of 45 crossings each were insufficient for children to reach adult pedestrian functioning, however, and future research should continue to study the trajectory and quantity of child pedestrian safety training needed for children to become competent pedestrians.     

Seat strength in rear body block tests

Purpose: This study collected and analyzed available testing of motor vehicle seat strength in rearward loading by a body block simulating the torso of an occupant. The data were grouped by single recliner, dual recliner, and all belts to seat (ABTS) seats.

Methods: The strength of seats to rearward loading has been evaluated with body block testing from 1964 to 2008. The database of available tests includes 217 single recliner, 65 dual recliner, and 18 ABTS seats. The trends in seat strength were determined by linear regression and differences between seat types were evaluated by Student's t-test. The average peak moment and force supported by the seat was determined by decade of vehicle model year (MY).

Results: Single recliner seats were used in motor vehicles in the 1960s to 1970s. The average strength was 918 ± 224 Nm (n = 26) in the 1960s and 1,069 ± 293 Nm (n = 65) in the 1980s. There has been a gradual increase in strength over time. Dual recliner seats started to phase into vehicles in the late 1980s. By the 2000s, the average strength of single recliner seats increased to 1,501 ± 335 Nm (n = 14) and dual recliner seats to 2,302 ± 699 Nm (n = 26). Dual recliner seats are significantly stronger than single recliner seats for each decade of comparison (P < .001). The average strength of ABTS seats was 4,395 ± 1,185 in-lb for 1989–2004 MY seats (n = 18). ABTS seats are significantly stronger than single or dual recliner seats (P < .001). The trend in ABTS strength is decreasing with time and converging toward that of dual recliner seats.

Conclusions: Body block testing is an quantitative means of evaluating the strength of seats for occupant loading in rear impacts. There has been an increase in conventional seat strength over the past 50 years. By the 2000s, most seats are 1,700–3,400 Nm moment strength. However, the safety of a seat is more complex than its strength and depends on many other factors.