Multiple pool fires: Occurrence,simulation, modeling and management

When two or more pool fires burn in such close proximity of one another that they can influence each other, they are termed ‘multiple pool fires’ (MPF). The characteristics and the structure of MPFs are significantly different from that of stand-alone pool fires. Even though MPFs have known to occur fairly often in chemical process industries, much lesser work has been done towards simulation, modeling and control of MPFs as compared to stand-alone pool fires.This paper is perhaps the first-ever attempt at surveying the MPF state-of-the-art. It recounts MPF accidents and catalogs the controlled experiments that have been done to understand the mechanism and impact of MPFs. Attempts to model MPFs have been assessed and possible ways to manage MPFs have been touched upon.     

A study of the probability distribution of pool fire extinguishing times using water mist

Water mist, a replacement for Halon gaseous agents in fire fighting, has been studied for decades. However, the fire-extinguishing reliability of water mist is debated. For example, there are significant differences in extinguishing times between tests conducted under the same conditions, and water mists have difficulty extinguishing small fires. To date, no study of the probability distribution of extinguishing times has been reported. In this study a statistical analysis of the extinguishing time distribution of pool fires extinguished using water mist is presented. The fire sources were circular/square stainless steel pans with gasoline, diesel, ethanol or daqing RP-3 as fuel. Two types of extinguishing scenarios were observed. In one situation, the fire was extinguished via a blow off process, when the flames had not yet been suppressed. Flame cooling is the primary fire extinguishing mechanism; the mass loss rate and combustion heat of the fuel are two key factors. In the other situation, the fire was initially suppressed and subsequently extinguished after a long suppression stage. Surface cooling is the primary fire extinguishing mechanism; the flash point of the fuel is the key factor.     

溴氟丙烯/13X沸石复合粉体抑制汽油火的试验研究

为提高粉体灭火介质的灭火性能,基于粉体灭火剂在火灾防治领域的重要性,通过减压吸附的方法,将洁净高效的气体灭火剂溴氟丙烯负载在13X沸石的孔洞之中,形成气-固复合粉体灭火剂。采用X-射线衍射仪、扫描电镜等对复合粉体的结构和组分进行表征。通过模拟试验研究溴氟丙烯含量不同的复合粉体对汽油油池火的灭火效果,并和普通的干粉灭火剂进行对比。结果证明,溴氟丙烯和13X沸石所形成的气-固复合粉体灭火剂针对汽油油池火具有很好的灭火性能,在同样的试验条件下,其灭火时间和灭火剂用量远少于普通的干粉灭火剂,且随着复合粉体中溴氟丙烯的含量增加,复合粉体的灭火性能逐渐提高。     

CFD simulation of pool fires situated at differing elevation

When two or more pool fires happen to burn so close to each other that they interact, they are termed ‘multiple pool fires’ (MPF). Past accident analysis reveals that MPFs occur quite frequently in chemical process industries. Controlled experiments done so far to study MPFs have indicated that MPFs lead to increase in the fuel burning rate, flame height and heat release rate (HRR) but the nature and the extent of the impacts of different factors on these manifestations is as yet poorly understood. In this context computational fluid dynamics (CFD) appears to be a tool which can enable more detailed and realistic simulation of MPFs than other possible approaches, especially due to its ability to closely approximate the underlying physical phenomena. In tank farms there are situations where different storage tanks are placed at different elevations yet close to each other. If such tanks happen to catch fire, the resulting fires may influence each other in a manner that may be a function of the difference in the tanks’ elevation. However no CFD study has been carried out which addresses this type of situation. Hence an attempt has been made to employ CFD to study MPFs involving two pools with fuel surfaces are at different elevations. Results reveal that good correlation is possible between the experimental findings and the CFD simulations.     

Conservation Threat of Increasing Fire Frequencies in the Western Ghats, India

Abstract:  The acceleration of processes such as forest fragmentation and forest fires in landscapes under intense human pressures makes it imperative to quantify and understand the effects of these processes on the conservation of biodiversity in these landscapes. We combined information from remote-sensing imagery and ground maps of all fires in the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (MWLS) in the Western Ghats of India over 14 years (1989–2002). These spatial data on fire occurrence were integrated with maps of vegetation types found in the MWLS to examine fire conditions in each. We calculated the average fire-return interval for each of the vegetation types individually and for the MWLS as a whole. Using vegetation data from the larger Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and the entire Western Ghats region, we conservatively estimated fire-frequency information for these larger regions. Because the MWLS does not contain tropical evergreen or montane forests, we were unable to estimate fire conditions in these forest types, which represent 31% of all Western Ghats vegetation cover. For the MWLS, all vegetation types had average fire-return intervals of <7 years, and the sanctuary as a whole had a fire-return interval of 3.3 years. Compared with a 13-year MWLS fire data set from 1909–1921, this represents a threefold increase in fire frequency over the last 80 years. We estimated average fire-return intervals of roughly 5 years for both the larger Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and the entire Western Ghats region. Given other recent reports, the estimated fire frequencies for the Western Ghats forests outside protected reserves are conservative. We conclude that the current fire regime of the Western Ghats poses a severe and persistent conservation threat to forests both within and outside protected reserves.     

Surface modification of die steel materials by EDM method using tungsten powder-mixed dielectric

Surface modification by material transfer during electrical discharge machining (EDM) has emerged as a key research area in the last decade. Material may be provided to the machined surface of the workpiece by the eroding tool electrode or by using powder-mixed dielectric. Breakdown of the hydrocarbon dielectric contributes carbon to the plasma channel which may also cause surface modification. The present work has investigated the response of three die steel materials to surface modification by EDM method with tungsten powder mixed in the dielectric medium. Taguchi experimental design technique was used to conduct the experiments on each work material independently. Peak current, pulse on-time and pulse off-time were taken as variable factors and micro-hardness of the machined surface was taken as the response parameter. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and spectrometric analysis show substantial transfer of tungsten and carbon to the workpiece surface and an improvement of more than 100% in micro-hardness for all the three die steels. Presence of tungsten carbide (WC and W₂C) indicates that its formation is taking place in the plasma channel. Machining parameters for the best value of micro-hardness for each work material were found to be the same.     

森林火灾灾情快速预判模型

为在火灾发生时进行灾情的快速评估,为消防决策提供参考,提出一种简化的林火蔓延模型。通过遥感影像,获取火灾首日燃火点和火场边界,利用风向、风速和USDA蔓延模型数据库中对应植被类型的蔓延速度,进行林火蔓延计算,预判无干扰状态下的林火蔓延范围,以达到灾情快速预判的目的。通过2006年黑龙江省和2009年中蒙边境特大森林草原火灾案例的分析,结合运用卫星遥感图像对逐天火迹和火点解译的结果,验证该模型的可靠性及适用性。研究结果表明,基于实时遥感影像与气象预报信息,运用简化的林火蔓延模型,并结合林火宏观扩散的特征,能够对火灾灾情的发展进行快速研判。     

LNG池火热辐射模型及安全距离影响因素研究

重点对LNG池火热辐射模型,模型应用方式,以及热辐射安全距离的影响因素做了详细研究,给出池火热辐射模型采用及安全距离计算的方法。对常用的热辐射计算模型(点源模型、LNGFire3和PoFM ISE模型)加以介绍,并对3种模型做了对比研究。PoFM ISE模型充分考虑大池火直径时不完全燃烧的因素以及风速对火焰高度的影响,建议当风速大于1.5 m/s,池火直径大于20 m时采用。同时,进一步研究影响LNG池火热辐射安全距离的各种因素,包括池火直径、风速、环境温度和湿度,从而得出不同条件下池火热辐射安全距离的要求。     

Characterization of municipal solid waste temporary storage sites: Risks posed to surrounding areas as a consequence of fire incidents

In this study temporary storage sites of municipal solid waste were characterized based on their potential social, health and environmental impacts as a consequence of spontaneous fires, by employing Boolean as well as weighted-linear-combination approaches in connection with various fuzzy set functions of population density around the storage sites. Sweden was used as the case study and data from 105 storage sites were analysed; of these, 38 were identified to be posing high risk for downwind residing population. Furthermore, during the past 10 years, the fire frequency and the average population residing within a radius of 1, 2, and 3 km were found to be comparatively higher for storage sites owned by private companies than for those owned by municipalities. The study provided first-cut information of poorly sited temporary storage sites and can help in formalizing the comprehensive risk analysis in the future.     

Vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides) responses to fertilization and salinity under irrigation conditions

Vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides) has not been widely introduced in arid and semi-arid regions where irrigation, fertilization, and salinity are important factors in plant growth. The main objective of this study was to determine the response of vetiver to fertilization (fertigation) and salinity and their interactions under irrigated conditions. The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse in 10-L pots. Combined effects of three nutrients concentrations and three salinity levels of electrical conductivity (EC) 1, 3 and 6 dS/m in the irrigation water on growth and transpiration of vetiver plants and the content of different elements in their foliage were studied. Similar contents of 3.7 g/kg Na, 5.77 g/kg Ca and 2.55 g/kg Mg were found in the foliage of all the plants irrigated with the different fertilizer and salinity levels. Concentrations of 59 mg/L N and 36.1 mg/L K in the irrigation water were sufficient for vetiver plants needs at the different salinity levels tested. The salinity threshold (the maximum EC in the soil solution that does not cause a significant yield reduction) for vetiver was between 3 and 6 dS/m. A concentration of 15.2 mg/L P in the irrigation water was the optimum value for vetiver growth in the three salinity levels, resulting in an average content of 5.95 g/kg P in plant foliage. It is suggested that vetiver is sensitive to excess P (>8.66 g/kg). Increasing EC in the irrigation water to 6 dS/m decreased plant foliage biomass mainly due to an increase in the osmotic potential of the irrigation water and high Cl⁻ concentration in the foliage.