Enforcement missions: Targets vs budgets

Enforcement of policy is typically delegated. What sort of mission should the head of an enforcement program be given? When there is more than one firm being regulated the firms’ decision problems—otherwise completely separate—become linked in a way that depends on that mission. Under some sorts of missions firms compete to avoid the attention of the enforcer by competitive reductions in the extent of their non-compliance, in others the interaction encourages competitive expansions. We develop a general model that allows for the ordering of some typical classes of missions. We find that in plausible settings ‘target-driven’ missions (that set a hard target in terms of environmental outcome but flexible budget) achieve the same outcome at lower cost than ‘budget-driven’ ones (that fix the enforcement budget). Inspection of some fixed fraction of firms is never optimal.     

Retention time profiling of all 136 tetra- through octa- chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans on a variety of Si-Arylene gas chromatographic stationary phases

The applicability of three different Silphenylene Silicone co-polymer (Si-Arylene) GC stationary phases (J&W Scientific DB-5ms, Varian VF-5ms, and VF-Xms) has been evaluated for the separation of all 136 tetra- through the octa- chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDD) and chlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDF) from closely eluting isomers using gas chromatography/high resolution mass spectrometry (GC/HRMS). Their relative performance data are compared to the “conventional” 5% diphenyl 95% dimethylpolysiloxane GC column (Supelco Equity-5) and to each other based on absolute retention times, visualized mass chromatograms, and the separation of 2,3,7,8-substituted isomers. VF-Xms GC column was able to demonstrate a better performance towards separation of 2,3,7,8-substituted PCDD/PCDF compared to other Si-Arylene GC columns tested, where only 2,3,4,7,8-PnCDF can not be resolved from 1,2,3,6,9-PnCDF and 2,3,4,6,7,8-/1,2,3,6,8,9-HxCDF and 1,2,3,7,8,9-/1,2,3,4,8,9-HxCDF can be at least partially resolved. These data suggest that the development of a single GC column for the separation of all 17 2,3,7,8-substituted dioxins and furans is feasible, which therefore could be used as a standard tool for the PCDD/PCDF methods globally including USEPA methods 1613b, 8290A, 8280B, European Standard Method EN 1948, Canadian methods DFPCB-E3418, EPS 1/RM/19, Japanese methods JIS K0311 and JIS K0312. Having one specific GC column to separate all 2,3,7,8-substituted PCDD/PCDF will significantly improve the data quality, comparability by the various methods and assessment techniques while simultaneously leading to a more cost and time efficient operation.     

Effects of multiple but low pesticide loads on aquatic fungal communities colonizing leaf litter

In the first tier risk assessment (RA) of pesticides, risk for aquatic communities is estimated by using results from standard laboratory tests with algae, daphnids and fish for single pesticides such as herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides. However, fungi as key organisms for nutrient cycling in ecosystems as well as multiple pesticide applications are not considered in the RA. In this study, the effects of multiple low pesticide pulses using regulatory acceptable concentrations (RACs) on the dynamics of non-target aquatic fungi were investigated in a study using pond mesocosm. For that, fungi colonizing black alder (Alnus glutinosa) leaves were exposed to multiple, low pulses of 11 different pesticides over a period of 60 days using a real farmer''s pesticide application protocol for apple cropping. Four pond mesocosms served as treatments and 4 as controls. The composition of fungal communities colonizing the litter material was analyzed using a molecular fingerprinting approach based on the terminal Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (t-RFLP) of the fungal Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) region of the ribonucleic acid (RNA) gene(s). Our data indicated a clear fluctuation of fungal communities based on the degree of leaf litter degradation. However significant effects of the applied spraying sequence were not observed. Consequently also degradation rates of the litter material were not affected by the treatments. Our results indicate that the nutrient rich environment of the leaf litter material gave fungal communities the possibility to express genes that induce tolerance against the applied pesticides. Thus our data may not be transferred to other fresh water habitats with lower nutrient availability.     

Do voluntary pollution reduction programs (VPRs) spur or deter environmental innovation? Evidence from 33/50

We study whether a government-sponsored voluntary pollution reduction program (VPR) promotes or deters the development of new environmental technologies that yield future emission reduction benefits. Using a panel of 127 U.S. manufacturing industries defined by 3-digit SIC classifications over the 1989–2004 period, we estimate impacts of industry-level participation in the 33/50 program, a VPR initiated by government regulators in 1991, on industry-level rates of environmental patenting. We find that higher rates of 33/50 program participation are associated with significant reductions in the number of successful environmental patent applications five to nine years after the program ended.     

Do EPA regulations affect labor demand? Evidence from the pulp and paper industry

Any opinions and conclusions expressed herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent the views of the U.S. Census Bureau or the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. All results have been reviewed to ensure that no confidential information is disclosed. We thank Wang Jin and Shital Sharma for excellent research assistance; we also thank Jim Davis at the Boston Research Data Center for his continued help, and Reed Walker and participants at the 2011 AERE Summer Conference and the Environmental Economics seminar at Harvard University?s Kennedy School for helpful comments. Any remaining errors are ours.     

Organizations in context: proposal for a new theoretical approach in prescriptive accident research

Lately, requests have been made to include the contexts of enterprises in models to prevent accidents at work. This paper presents different contextual theories in order to analyze whether this type of theory could be a way to elaborate our understanding of context. A differentiation is made between (a) theories of understanding relations between enterprises and regulatory agencies and (b) theories to perceive the relation between enterprise and the broader context. The last group of theories has its point of departure in an organizational understanding diverging from the classical, rational understanding of organizations and organizational processes. The conclusion is that contextual theories open for an elaborated understanding of the role of contextual relations in accident prevention, but also that an investigation of the potentials for making the theories action-orientated is needed.     

论美国能源监管立法与能源管理体制

美国联邦政府从20世纪30年代开始制定能源监管立法。依据集中程度和立法主题,美国能源监管立法可分为电力管控、核能监管、能源安全、放松管制等4个发展时期。根据现行美国能源立法．美国能源管理体制分为联邦和州两个层次。在联邦层次,对能源进行监管的部门有美国能源部、联邦能源监管委员会、核能监管署、环境保护署、国会内政部等。其中,能源部主要负责能源发展和安全的大政方针的制定,联邦能源监管委员会的使命在于通过管制和市场的手段执行能源立法及能源政策。在州层次,一般由州能源委员会、州公用事业委员会以及州环保局负责州的能源监管。     

Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy for emerging contaminant analysis in drinking water

● Definition of emerging contaminants in drinking water is introduced. ● SERS and standard methods for emerging contaminant analysis are compared. ● Enhancement factor and accessibility of SERS hot spots are equally important. ● SERS sensors should be tailored according to emerging contaminant properties. ● Challenges to meet drinking water regulatory guidelines are discussed. Emerging contaminants (ECs) in drinking water pose threats to public health due to their environmental prevalence and potential toxicity. The occurrence of ECs in our drinking water supplies depends on their physicochemical properties, discharging rate, and susceptibility to removal by water treatment processes. Uncertain health effects of long-term exposure to ECs justify their regular monitoring in drinking water supplies. In this review article, we will summarize the current status and future opportunities of surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) for EC analysis in drinking water. Working principles of SERS are first introduced and a comparison of SERS and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry in terms of cost, time, sensitivity, and availability is made. Subsequently, we discuss the strategies for designing effective SERS sensors for EC analysis based on five categories—per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, novel pesticides, pharmaceuticals, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, and microplastics. In addition to maximizing the intrinsic enhancement factors of SERS substrates, strategies to improve hot spot accessibilities to the targeting ECs are equally important. This is a review article focusing on SERS analysis of ECs in drinking water. The discussions are not only guided by numerous endeavors to advance SERS technology but also by the drinking water regulatory policy.     

Safety evaluation of drowsy driving advisory system: Alabama case study

Introduction: The present study discusses roles, characteristics, and safety assessment of a drowsy driving advisory (DDA) system, implemented on rural interstates of Alabama. The DDA system is an engineering countermeasure designed to reduce the likelihood of drowsy driving crashes. It consists of a series of roadside signs with warning and advisory messages for drowsy drivers. The DDA system was implemented upstream of rural rest areas based on a comprehensive crash analysis. Method: A post-implementation study was conducted three years after the DDA system implementation to assess its safety effects. An empirical bayes (EB) method along with predictive methods of the Highway Safety Manual was used in the safety assessment. To overcome the underreported issue of drowsy driving crashes in the crash analysis, the present study used a concept called, expanded definition of drowsy driving (EDD) crashes. Result: The analysis found that the DDA system could reduce total and EDD crashes by 64% and 49%, respectively. It is important to note that such huge crash reduction effects are due to a combined effect of both rest areas and the DDA system, not because of a single treatment. The safety effect of a rest area itself, without considering the effect of the DDA system, was also investigated. Results show that total and EDD crashes would increase about 12–45% and 5–33%, respectively if there is no presence of a rest area. Conclusion: Our findings conclude that the DDA system could significantly reduce both total and drowsy driving crashes when it cooperates with a rest area facility. Practical Application: The findings also provide the guidance of using the DDA system on high-speed roads as a safety countermeasure of drowsy driving crashes. Readers can find details of the DDA system used in this study with its layout, dimension, and roadside safety messages.     

Risk-based siting considerations for LNG terminals – Comparative perspectives of United States & Europe

Siting regulations and industrial standards for liquefied natural gas (LNG) terminals are evolving along different paths within Europe and the United States (U.S.). The 49 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Part 190 continues to delineate the United States process to adopt and revise safety regulations pertaining to LNG terminals and peak shaving plant sitting.¹ Embodied in these regulations are rich legal and regulatory traditions that are unique to the U.S. perspective. For example, the public is encouraged to petition existing regulations and to comment on regulatory proposals. Litigation within the U.S. court system is another means by which industry and the public may seek regulatory change. This approach promotes public involvement in governmental oversight and creates a distinctive obligation and accountability for U.S. regulatory agencies, which uniquely shape technical, safety, risk mitigation, and societal risk perspectives for siting LNG terminals.European traditions shape siting regulations for LNG terminals as well. Though American siting guidance includes references to the National Fire Protection Association’s NFPA 59A and 49 CFR, Part 193, European developers also apply the guidance within EN 1473 – a risk-based case-by-case analysis directive.^{2, 3 and 4} The NFPA 59A standard is applied for a basis to examine property line spacing as they pertain or may relate to off-site hazard impacts. The European approach applies the assessment and suitability of code compliance and the application of accepted engineering practices. In addition the approach incorporates the application of empirical risk assessments and computational modeling to reach an understanding of risk exposures. European policies set limits on the population’s cumulative exposure to facility risks and require LNG facility developers not to exceed established risk criteria.This paper describes how the U.S. and Europe site LNG terminals, identifies key differences in their risk-based approaches, and explains why these differences exist. This discussion also examines historical precedents that have influenced regulations and approval processes for siting LNG terminals within each continent.