IRRIGATION WATER AND SURFACE RUNOFF QUALITY AND QUANTITY IN CARSON VALLEY,NEVADA1

ABSTRACT: Best management practices for irrigated agriculture are not restricted to the control of sediments in the return flow. Salts and nutrient loading and oxygen depletion are also of environmental concern. Since knowledge of waste loading returned from agricultural irrigation is limited, specific characterization of irrigatin and runoff water quality should precede corrective measures. In 1974, 1975 and 1976, four study sites with in a 50,000-acre irrigated area were monitored to characterize the quantity and quality of irrigation water and surface return flow. Simple correlatins among constituents showed strong relationships among BOD, TP, PO₄,-P, and No₃-N. Least significant difference tests among seasonal means of change-in-load per irrigation showed that only TDS and PO₄-P were significant.     

PLANNING LEVEL ESTIMATES OF THE VALUE OF RESERVOIRS FOR WATER SUPPLY AND FLOW AUGMENTATION IN NEW HAMPSHIRE1

: In general, the choice among reservoirs for water supply or flow augmentation is a multiobjective problem. Choices are based in part on the yield available from water supply reservoirs or, in the case of flow augmentation reservoirs, on the increase in low flows at downstream locations. Detailed estimates of these effects may be too costly for basin planning purposes. Thus this paper presents methods for rapid estimation of those quantities for New Hampshire. For water supply reservoirs, a composite empirical relation between Y95 (the draft available 95 percent of the time) and storage ratio, S*, is developed from previous studies in the region. For flow augmentation reservoirs, empirical relations between S* and degree of regulation, R*, are applied to each upstream regulating reservoir. Values of regulation arc then summed and divided by the mean flow at the downstream reach of interest. This parameter, (ΓR)*, is then related to increase in flow available 95 percent of the time by an empirical relation.     

ESTIMATED STREAM FLOW REQUIREMENTS FOR FISHES OF THE WASHITA RIVER BELOW FOSS RESERVOIR,WESTERN OKLAHOMA1

Velocity and depth preference curves for juvenile and adult red shiners (Notropis lutrensis) were developed for each season of the year. The incremental methodology, developed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for quantifying the amount of physical habitat available for fish, was applied as a basis for recommending minimum stream flows for life stages of red shiners and channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) in the Washita River below Foss Reservoir. The minimum stream flow required to support populations of red shiners and channel catfish was estimated to be 0.60 m³/s during all months except April and May, during which flushing flows of 3.0 m³/s were recommended. Under drought conditions a contingency flow of 0.18 m³/s was recommended for August through March, a flushing flow of 2.4 m³/s for April and May, and a flow of 0.30 m³/s for channel catfish spawning in June and July. Standing crop of adult red shiners per weighted usable area averaged 2.73 g/m² (27 kg/ha) for two sites on the Washita River. A positive relation between standing crop and weighted usable area was suggested. Use of the incremental methodology on the study reach below Foss Reservoir required 96 person-hours of labor, excluding training, travel, and developing preference curves, and a total cost of $1,762, of which $1,200 was for the purchase of equipment.     

A FINITE ELEMENT MODEL OF CONTAMINANT MOVEMENT IN GROUNDWATER1

ABSTRACT. Transient, two-dimensional solutions are developed which describe the movement and distribution of a conservative substance in a stream-aquifer system. The solutions are obtained by solving sequentially the groundwater flow and mass transport equations. A variational approach in conjunction with the finite element method is used to solve the groundwater flow equation. Galerkin's approach coupled with the finite element method is used to solve the mass transport equation. Linear approximated triangular elements and a centered scheme of numerical integration are employed to calculate the hydraulic head distribution and the concentration of solute in the flow region. The linear approximation used to define the concentration function within each element is not appropriate for cases involving steep concentration gradients. For such cases, higher order approximations are necessary to assure the continuity of gradients across interelemental boundaries. Numerical examples that illustrate the applicability of the model are presented.     

A SIMPLE HYDRAULIC SIMULATOR1

ABSTRACT: A simple simulator was constructed, calibrated, programmed and used in management studies of a hydraulic system containing two pumping stations in series, connected by canals and reservoirs. The features of the model, its calibration and use are described, and comparisons between measured and computed hydraulic behavior are presented.     

IMPROVING IRRIGATION RETURN FLOW QUALITY WITH A WATER RENTAL MARKET1

ABSTRACT: Current policies for correcting the problem of irrigation return flow pollution tend to attack the symptoms of the problem, rather than its cause. The present institutional arrangement for allocating irrigation water is seen as the source of the problem. This paper examines the water quality benefits of altering the institutional arrangement to allow for irrigation water transfers through a rental market. It is conceptualized that by creating a water rental market an opportunity cost would be associated with the use of irrigation water such that profit maximizing farmers would be induced to use his water supply more efficiently and rent the surplus to other irrigators, thus reducing return flow pollution. It is shown that a water rental market could increase water quality in the Yakima River in southcentral Washington by 31 percent as well as increase farm incomes and crop production.     

FOG DRIP IN THE BULL RUN MUNICIPAL WATERSHED,OREGON1

ABSTRACT: Net precipitation under old growth Douglas fir forest in the Bull Run Municipal Watershed (Portland, Oregon) totaled 1739 mm during a 4Cbweek period, 387 mm more than in adjacent clearcut areas. Expressing data on a full water year basis and adjusting gross precipitation for losses due to rainfall interception suggest fog drip could have added 882 mm (35 in) of water to total precipitation during a year when precipitation measured 2160 mm in a rain gage in a nearby clearing. Standard rain gages installed in open areas where fog is common may be collecting up to 30 percent less precipitation than would be collected in the forest. Long term forest management (Le., timber harvest) in the watershed could reduce annual water yield and, more importantly, summer stream flow by reducing fog drip.     

EFFECTS OF URBANIZATION ON BASE FLOW OF SELECTED SOUTH-SHORE STREAMS,LONG ISLAND,NEW YORK1

ABSTRACT: Hydrograph analysis of six streams on the south shore of Long Island indicates that eastward urbanization during the last three decades has significantly reduced base flow to streams. Before urbanization, roughly 95 percent of total annual stream flow on Long Island was base flow. In urbanized southwestern Nassau County, storm water sewerage, increased impervious surface area, and sanitary sewerage have reduced base flow to 20 percent of total stream flow. In an adjacent urbanized but unsewered area in southeastern Nassau County, base flow has decreased to 84 percent of total annual stream flow. In contrast, base flow in two streams in rural areas has remained virtually constant, averaging roughly 95 percent of total annual flow throughout the 1955-70 study period. Double-mass curve analysis of base flow as a percentage of total annual stream flow indicates that (1) changes in stream flow characteristics began in the early 1960's in the sewered area and in the late 1960's in the later urbanized, unsewered area, and (2) a new equilibrium has been established between the streams in the sewered area and the new hydrologic characteristics of their urbanized drainage basins.     

SEISMIC REFRACTION ANALYSIS OF WATERSHED MANTLE RELATED TO SOIL,GEOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY1

ABSTRACT: An extensive hammer seismic refraction survey was carried out in three contiguous watersheds (217, 89, and 190 acres) on a laccolith near Sturgis, South Dakota to test its utility in rugged mountain terrain. Isopachs (lines connecting points of equal mantle thickness), area-elevation curves (hypsometry), and structure contours were used together with drill cores, petrography, hydrographs, and soil information to interpret the nature and role of porous mantle in the waterflow behavior of the watersheds. Refraction profiles produced only one geologically meaningful seismic contrast within the loccolith. Drill cores indicated a shallow stony profile on a sheeted horizon terminating on isotropic crystalline rock impervious except for tight joints. Means of refraction and core interpretations were not statistically different. Apparent seismic discontinuities deeper within the bedrock lacked geological identity. Storm hydrographs and water yields are better related to soil type differences and porous mantle distribution than to average porous mantle depth. On the other hand, slope of flow-duration curves correlate with average porous mantle depth. Porous mantle isopachs also indicate that measured flow from each basin is total area flow. Thus, porous mantle isopachs and hypsometry, and soil type delineation are complimentary in our interpretation of watershed behavior.     

Thermal and hydrometallurgical recovery methods of heavy metals from municipal solid waste fly ash

Heavy metals in fly ash from municipal solid waste incinerators are present in high concentrations. Therefore fly ash must be treated as a hazardous material. On the other hand, it may be a potential source of heavy metals. Zinc, lead, cadmium, and copper can be relatively easily removed during the thermal treatment of fly ash, e.g. in the form of chlorides. In return, wet extraction methods could provide promising results for these elements including chromium and nickel. The aim of this study was to investigate and compare thermal and hydrometallurgical treatment of municipal solid waste fly ash. Thermal treatment of fly ash was performed in a rotary reactor at temperatures between 950 and 1050 °C and in a muffle oven at temperatures from 500 to 1200 °C. The removal more than 90% was reached by easy volatile heavy metals such as cadmium and lead and also by copper, however at higher temperature in the muffle oven. The alkaline (sodium hydroxide) and acid (sulphuric acid) leaching of the fly ash was carried out while the influence of temperature, time, concentration, and liquid/solid ratio were investigated. The combination of alkaline-acidic leaching enhanced the removal of, namely, zinc, chromium and nickel.