水质自动监测中的质量保证与质量控制

质量保证与质量拉制是水质自动监测中十分重要的技术工作和管理工作，包括人员素质、运行与管理机制、试剂与标准溶液的配制及文件记录等。在实际工作中，监测人员可根据仪器的运行状况，定期对仪器进行校准、标准溶液的棱查、比对实验验证及试剂有效性检查，用以检查仪器的基线飘移情况。如果分析中出现一个异常值，它的前后均为正常值，这种数值大多是由仪器的进样、仪器内部试剂传输等原因所致，如果发生原因不明的数据异常，就要及时检查系统的各个环节并采集实际水样进行人工分析，直至查清原因，剔除异常值，并在周报中加以说明，以确保上报数据的准确性、精密性和可比性。     

PERSPECTIVES FROM THREE YEARS EXPERIENCE OF REGIONAL WATER SERVICES IN THAMES WATER AUTHORITY1

ABSTRACT: Thames Water is one of ten regional Water Authorities established in 1974 to manage all water services in England and Wales. This paper looks back at water reorganization and reviews the achievements and highlights of the last three years. Constitutionally, Water authorities are a combination of a nationalized industry and local authority. This has advantages and disadvantages. Freedom of action, particularly in financial matters, is constrained by Government and official agencies. A severe pollution of the upper Thames and the drought of 1976 tested Thames Water's ability to deal with emergencies. Thames Water does not have an operational monopoly. Private Water Companies supply one third of the water demand and local authorities manage nearly all the sewers. But Thames Water's control over planning and investment ensures that the river basin is managed in a coordinated fashion. Tariff structure changes have led the Authority to bill all its consumers direct. The Thames is a small but intensively used river and vigilance is needed to maintain water quality. Thames Water is proud of the restoration of the tidal Thames from a typical grossly polluted metropolitan estuary to its present excellent condition. The British Government intends to establish a national water industry strategic planning organization but at the same time they affirm that there can be no departure from the principle of integrated river basin management.     

Sample intake position and loading rates from nonpoint source pollution

Paired water samples were simultaneously activated from two different vertical positions within the approach section of a flow-control structure to determine the effect of sample intake position on nonpoint runoff parameter concentrations and subsequent event loads. Suspended solids (SS), total phosphorus (TP) and organic plus exchangeable nitrogen [(Or+Ex)-N] were consistently higher throughout each runoff event when sampled from the floor of the approach section as opposed to those samples taken at midstage. Dissolved molybdate reactive phosphorus (DMRP) and ammonium (NH₄-N) concentrations did not appear to be significantly affected by the vertical difference in intake position. However, the nitrate plus nitrite nitrogen [(NO₃+NO₂)-N] concentrations were much higher when sampled from the midstage position.Although the concentration differences between the two methods were not appreciable, when evaluated in terms of event loads, discrepancies were evident for all parameters. Midstage sampling produced event loads for SS, TP, (Or + Ex)–N, DMRP, NH₄-N, and (NO₃+NO₂)-N that were 44,39,35,80,71, and 181%, respectively, of floor sampling loads. Differences in loads between the two methods are attributed to the midstage position, sampling less of the bed load. The correct position will depend on the objective; however, such differences should be recognized during the design phase of the monitoring program.This work was supported by the Soil Science Department, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, and by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region V., Chicago, Illinois (Grant No. G005139-01).     

THE MILWAUKEE POLLUTION CASE - IMPLICATIONS FOR WATER RESOURCES PLANNING1

ABSTRACT: The Illinois v. Milwaukee Federal District Court decision is the most far reaching application yet of the federal common law of nuisance to interstate water pollution conflicts. Although a Federal Appelate Court recently rescinded part of the district court decision, Milwaukee must still upgrade its metropolitan sewage system to a level beyond that required by federal and state regulations. The improvements must be completed with or without federal aid. The case points out the apparent inability of the Clean Water Act, the most comprehensive federal legislation affecting the nation's water quality, to deal with certain interstate water quality conflicts. The Milwaukee decision could set a precedent for similar settlements elsewhere which may in turn affect the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's water quality clean up program. A more integrated, ecosystem conscious approach to management of shared water resources (e.g., the Great Lakes) would help reduce the need for court decisions like Illinois v. Milwaukee.     

1976 Illinois drought: Evidence for improved water quality

During 1976, Illinois experienced a mild drought, of i ntensity equivalent to the once in 5 years frequency. It was anticipated that the drought would result in deteriorated water quality because dilution of point source discharges would be diminished. Furthermore, because productivity in Illinois streams is light limited, reduced runoff should result in clearer streams, higher algae levels, and greater variability in dissolved oxygen levels. In spite of these expectations, both chemical and biologic data showed that water quality in 1976 was appreciably better than that before 1975. The information provided by the Illinois water quality index (Janardan and Schaeffer 1977) coincides with biologic analyses of benthic invertebrates. The index supports and supplements the biologic data and provides a means for quantifying and integrating chemical and biologic data.The results of this study showed that the drought had little, if any, effect on statewide water quality. Although the magnitude of the drought varied across the state, water quality remained unchanged between 1975 and 1976. This may have reflected the ability of unpolluted systems to adjust to natural variations or have been an indication that there were offsetting statewide gains in pollution control in 1976 or that uncharacterized, broad-based phenomena were operating in stream ecology, or that combinations of these were in effect.Based on presentations before the American Water Resources Assocition, Illinois Section, Chicago, Illinois, June 10–11, 1977.     

Direct supercritical fluid extraction from water

Abstract

This paper describes the development of apparatus suitable for direct supercritical fluid extraction of organics from water. Results are presented for the extraction of pentachlorophenol present in water at concentrations of the order of 0.1 ppm. The effect of changes in apparatus design and supercritical fluid flow rate on recovery are discussed.     

Distribution of nutrients and AOU in the Mediterranean Water (North Atlantic Ocean)

Water samples were collected in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean (33-37^° N and 11-16^° W) in May 1983, and vertical profiles of chemical and physical parameters allowed us to identify the different water masses. A significant difference in salinity and its maximum can be found at different places and depths, as a consequence of the spreading of the Mediterranean Water (MW) from the Strait of Gibraltar. The apparent oxygen utilization shows a correlation with nutrients in North Atlantic Central Water. The relative percentages of water masses were assessed in order to examine the depth of maximum influence of MW as a function of latitude and to apply this knowledge to the black scabbard fish long-line strategy. The long-line fishing depth location was adapted to the specific MW distribution of the different banks with improvements in the mean catch efficiency. The thickness of the MW prevalence layer has a pronounced decrease to the south. MW influence clearly sinks and decrease to south-west. The highest percentage of the MW was found in the Gorringe Bank area and the lowest in the Madeira area.     

Making water policy work in the United Kingdom: A case study of practical approaches to strengthening complex,multi-tiered systems of water governance

We propose a suite of actions for strengthening water governance in contexts with complex, multi-tiered arrangements. In doing so, we focus on the collective water policies and approaches of the United Kingdom (UK), including those of devolved governments, which confront a host of serious water-related challenges—from massive flooding of urban areas and agricultural lands, to pressure on aquifers from rising water demand and drought. Further complexity in addressing these challenges has emerged in the wake of the June 2016 vote to leave the European Union (EU), so-called ‘Brexit’, and the ensuing ‘separation process’ with uncertainties for institutional and governance arrangements to follow. We make ten proposals for improving and reinvigorating water policy in complex, multi-layered situations, and comment specifically on their application in the UK setting. These are: put in place a system-wide water policy; fully embrace community-led nested river basin planning and management; fully fund river basin planning and management; re-focus the policy framing; use best-available data and information; create conversational spaces and become a more water-literate society; mobilise people; support and sustain core community networks; underpin river basin plans with regulatory provisions and effective monitoring and enforcement; and address systemic institutional amnesia. Individually and collectively, we contend that these actions will have a marked effect on transforming the planning and management of water resources. A system-wide water policy that maintains and builds on the substantive biophysical and socio-economic benefits delivered through implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive, together with the more recent Floods Directive, will galvanise stewardship of water in the UK. We urge more active engagement with and empowerment of the multiplicity of system ‘actors’, and highlight the role of non-government actors in a post-Brexit world as conduits for reaching out to and connecting directly with a wide range of water-related actors, especially across the EU. While attention to-date has focused on a plethora of specifically water-related projects, initiatives, plans and regulations, what is really needed is a systemic, long-term view of water resource management.     

Science–policy interface for addressing environmental problems in arid Spain

Science–policy interfaces are avenues for finding solutions for environmental challenges through strengthening collaborations between research disciplines and public administrations. Here we present a methodology for the conduct of science–policy interfaces between scientists and policymakers for addressing day-to-day environmental problems in the southeastern Spanish drylands. A knowledge brokering approach based on six consecutive workshops was used to facilitate mutual understanding and trust between scientists and policymakers. Water policy and biodiversity loss were identified as major environmental concerns in the region, and 12 final environmental problems were agreed as priorities. A graphical tool was used for diagnosing each environmental problem according to the available scientific knowledge, the current regulatory capacity of administrations, and the level of public engagement necessary for addressing the problem. The use of the graphical tool also allowed for (a) the clarification of roles involved in problem solving, and (b) the promotion of a culture of shared responsibility for the implementation of management actions based on collaborative work. We discuss lessons learned and propose recommendations for future experiences.     

Pathways of system transformation: Strategic agency to support regime change

There is a well-recognised need to transform existing systems of production and consumption towards a more sustainable orientation. However, there is much uncertainty about how to achieve sustainability transitions in practice, and what transition advocates and actors can do to catalyse and steer regime transformation. We therefore need evidence of how transitions are operationalised, in order to better understand the on-ground dynamics of regime change. To address this gap, this research paper examines three contemporary cases of transformational change in the Australian urban water sector and the dominant strategic approach to change adopted in each city. It focuses on the strategic behaviour of actors, in particular examining how agents navigate and respond to the opportunities and constraints of their context, and what initiatives (or combination thereof) can facilitate innovation diffusion and regime transformation. The results reveal three distinct patterns of change, each of which favour particular strategic interventions by transition proponents.In order to incubate transformational change, the results suggest that actors may be best served by initially employing strategies that are immediately compatible with their existing context. However, examination of the strengths and weaknesses of each pattern confirm that no single strategic approach is in itself sufficient, and in order to embed a novel innovation and bring about regime change, actors will eventually need to broaden the range of interventions used. The results also reveal the possibility of a ‘pattern-dependence’ that actors need to deliberately work to overcome in order to fully mainstream the desired change. These findings therefore provide insight into the links between regime transformation, patterns of change and actor strategies while also offering practical guidance that can be used to inform the design and implementation of regime transformation agendas and programs.