欧洲有关国家关于执行欧盟废旧电子电气指令的措施

随着全球高科技工业的迅猛发展、人类消费水平的不断提高和消费结构的变化，电子废弃物快速增长，并造成日益严重的环境污染问题，因此引起了全球各国高度关注并制定了相关环境管理对策。2003年2月13日，欧盟公布了《废旧电子电气设备指令》（简称WEEE指令）和《限制某些有害物质在电子电气设备中使用指令》（简称ROHs指令）。欧盟各国实践表明，欧盟成员在欧盟指令公布之前已经制定了关于收集和适当处理电子电气废物的规定，这些规定基本上与欧盟新指令有着相同的内涵。因此，欧盟成员政府并不需要为了满足欧盟指令的新要求而对目前国内的电子电气处理体制做太大的修改，故可以预期欧盟各国执行欧盟关于废旧电子电气设备指令过程中将不会导致过多问题产生，并且执行成本相对较小。     

欧盟工业废水污染物排放限值的制定方法

依据欧盟委员会的IPPC指令和水框架指令，欧盟成员国目前在制定废水污染物排放限值时，都以最佳可得技术（BAT）为参考，同时运用反演的方法将污染物排放限值与环境质量标准相结合。阐述了欧盟国家制定废水污染物排放限值的“BAT法”和“质量标准反演法”，并举例分析了“质量标准反演法”。提出了我国借鉴欧盟方法的几点建议。     

The importance of compatible beliefs for effective climate policy integration

ABSTRACT

European climate policy faced increasing constraints during the economic and Eurozone crises (2008–2014). The European Commission subsequently refocused policymaking toward integrating climate objectives into other policy areas such as energy and the 2014–2020 European Union (EU) budget. The conditions for successful climate policy integration (CPI) are analyzed, focusing on the compatibility of key actors’ beliefs. In renewable energy policy, CPI was successful as long as the co-benefits and related policy-core beliefs of energy security, rural economic development and climate action coexisted harmoniously. Once conflict among these policy-core beliefs emerged during the biofuels controversy, CPI was weakened as actors with competing economy-focused beliefs controlled the decision-making process. The case of EU budget climate mainstreaming illustrates how actors can add climate objectives into legislation despite meaningful discussion being ‘crowded out’ by other priorities. The findings highlight the importance of low conflict between departments, compatible beliefs and policy priorities for successful CPI.     

Environmental policy evaluation in the EU: between learning,accountability, and political opportunities?

ABSTRACT

Policy evaluation has grown significantly in the EU environmental sector since the 1990s. In identifying and exploring the putative drivers behind its rise – a desire to learn, a quest for greater accountability, and a wish to manipulate political opportunity structures – new ground is broken by examining how and why the existing literatures on these drivers have largely studied them in isolation. The complementarities and potential tensions between the three drivers are then addressed in order to advance existing research, drawing on emerging empirical examples in climate policy, a very dynamic area of evaluation activity in the EU. The conclusions suggest that future studies should explore the interactions between the three drivers to open up new and exciting research opportunities in order to comprehend contemporary environmental policy and politics in the EU.     

欧盟环境立法对国际环境合作的影响

在共同的全球利益之下,因社会性因素的紧密联结而结成的较为成熟的区域性组织可以说在环境保护利益上更具有可协调性,并已成为国际环境合作的一种途径.本文通过分析区域性组织-欧洲联盟内部的环境立法,来探析国际环境合作领域.     

北美自由贸易区和欧盟的区域性环境政策浅析

环境因素逐渐成为影响全球和各国经济的重要因素，以北自由贸易区和欧盟为代表的区域性经济集团在环境态度及政策取向上已日趋一致，在对这２个区域性经济集团的环境制度性安排的特点进行分析后，探讨了在未来可持续增长模式下，世界环境政策发展的趋势；同时也分析了我国应积极采取的对策。     

欧盟碳价影响因素研究及其对中国的启示

作为一项市场创新和政策创新,即将启动的中国全国性碳市场备受国内外关注。为保证其成功建立与平稳发展,相关经验借鉴已刻不容缓,但作为投石问路的7大试点碳市场发展层次不齐,可供参考的模式有限,因此研究全球第一大碳市场——欧盟碳排放交易体系(EU ETS)及其对中国的可参照性尤为迫切;而作为市场是否成熟的风向标,碳价规律性特征的挖掘尤为重要。前期国内外学者分别发现CER价格、原油价格、煤炭价格、天然气价格、欧洲工业指数、联合国气候变化大会、政府政策、极寒天气、暖冬天气、自然灾害、重大事件等多种因素都有可能引起EUA期货价格波动。本研究通过引入MIV-BP神经网络模型,对EU ETS二期和三期的EUA期货价格进行训练和测试,模拟了上述11个因素对EUA价格的影响,弥补了传统计量模型难以同时处理较多变量及不能整合定性与定量变量等缺点。通过对EU ETS二期1 149组和三期775组数据的挖掘,得出了各变量对EUA期货价格的影响程度。其中,二期运行阶段各变量影响程度从大到小排序为:自然灾害COPCER极寒天气Coal重大事件Brent政府政策Stock600Gas暖冬天气;三期运行阶段各变量影响程度从大到小排序为:COPStock600Coal自然灾害极寒天气重大事件政府政策BrentGasCER暖冬天气。最后,本研究对二、三期各变量对碳价影响程度的变化进行了解释,并对中国未来建立全国性碳市场提出了以下四点建议:(1)稳定碳市场参与主体预期;(2)完善核证减排抵消机制,保持政策稳定;(3)配额分配考虑区域差异;(4)建立配额应急机制。     

Mitigation of CO2 Emissions from the EU-15 Building Stock. Beyond the EU Directive on the Energy Performance of Buildings (9 pp)

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Goal Scope and Background. The European Directive on Energy Performance of Buildings which came into force 16 December 2002 will be implemented in the legislation of Member States by 4 January 2006. In addition to the aim of improving the overall energy efficiency of new buildings, large existing buildings will become a target for improvement, as soon as they undergo significant renovation. The building sector is responsible for about 40% of Europe's total end energy consumption and hence this Directive is an important step for the European Union in order that it should reach the level of saving required by the Kyoto Agreement. In this the EU is committed to reduce CO2 emissions relative to the base year of 1990 by 8 per cent, by 2010. But what will be the impact of the new Directive, how large could be the impacts of extending the obligation for energy efficiency retrofitting towards smaller buildings? Can improvement of the insulation offset or reduce the growing energy consumption from the increasing installation of cooling installations? EURIMA, the European Insulation Manufacturers Association and EuroACE, the European Alliance of Companies for Energy Efficiency in Buildings, asked Ecofys to address these questions.

Methods

The effect of the EPB Directive on the emissions associated with the heating energy consumption of the total EU 15 building stock has been examined in a model calculation, using the Built Environment Analysis Model (BEAM), which was developed by Ecofys to investigate energy saving measures in the building stock. The great complexity of the EU-15 building stock had to be simplified by examining five standard buildings with eight insulation standards, which are assigned to building age and renovation status. Furthermore, three climatic regions (cold, moderate, warm) were distinguished for the calculation of the heating energy demand. This gave a basic 210 building types for which the heating energy demand and CO2 emissions from heating were calculated according to the principles of the European Norm EN 832.

Results and Discussion

The model calculations demonstrates that the main contributor to the total heating related CO2 emissions of 725 Mt/a from the EU building stock in 2002 is the residential sector (77%) while the remaining 23% originates from non-residential buildings. In the residential sector, single-family houses represent the largest group responsible for 60% of the total CO2 emissions equivalent to 435 Mt/a.

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- The technical potential: If all retrofit measures in the scope of the Directive were realised immediately for the complete residential and non-residential building stock the overall CO2 emission savings would add up to 82 Mt/a. An additional saving potential compared to the Directive of 69 Mt/a would be created if the scope of the Directive was extended to cover retrofit measures in multi-family dwellings (200-1000m2) and non-residential buildings smaller than 1000m2 used floor space. In addition including the large group of single-family dwellings would lead to a potential for additional CO2 emission reductions compared to the Directive of 316 Mt/a.

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- Temporal mobilization of the potential: Calculations based on the building stock as it develops over time with average retrofit rates demonstrated that regulations introduced following the EPB Directive result in a CO2 emissions decrease of 34 Mt/a by the year 2010 compared to the business as usual scenario. Extending the scope of the EPB Directive to all residential buildings (including single and multi-family dwellings), the CO2 emission savings potential over the 'business as usual' scenario could be doubled to 69 Mt/a in the year 2010. This creates an additional saving potential compared to the Directive of 36 Mt/a.

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- Cooling demand: The analysis demonstrated that in warm climatic zones the cooling demand can be reduced drastically by a combination of lowering the internal heat loads and by improved insulation. With the reduction of the heat loads to a moderate level the cooling demand, e.g. of a terraced house located in Madrid, can be reduced by an additional 85% if the insulation level is improved appropriately.

Conclusions

This study demonstrates that the European Directive on Energy Performance of Buildings will have a significant impact on the CO2 emissions of the European building stock. The main saving potential lies in insulation of the existing building stock. Beyond this, CO2 emissions could, however, be greatly reduced if the scope of the Directive were to be extended to include retrofit of smaller buildings.

Recommendation and Perspective

The reductions should be seen in relation to the remaining gap of 190 Mt CO2 eq. per annum between the current emission levels of EU-15 and the target under the Kyoto-Protocol for the year 2010. The energy and industrial sector will probably contribute only a fraction of this reduction via the newly established EU emissions trading scheme and connected projects under the flexible mechanism. In addition, the traffic sector is likely to continue its growth path leading to a widening of the gap. Thus, there is likely to be considerable pressure on the EU building sector to contribute to the EU climate targets beyond what will be achieved by means of the current EPB Directive. Legislators on the EU and national level are therefore advised to take accelerated actions to tap the very significant emission reduction potentials available in the EU building stock.     

Farm animal welfare policymaking in the European Parliament – a social identity perspective on voting behaviour

ABSTRACT

Sustainable agriculture implies trade-offs with farm animal welfare. Proposals to increase agricultural productivity and ecological sustainability alike, are often linked to intensification, which may restrict animal welfare. Despite the growing importance of farm animal welfare for the alignment of agricultural and environmental policy, determinants of decision-making at the EU level remain unexplored. This article contributes to closing this research gap, broadening our understanding of why policymakers vote for the enactment of animal welfare policies. Applying the Social Identities in the Policy Process (SIPP) perspective we highlight the role of group membership for individual decision-making. By means of a quantitative analysis of voting behaviour in the European Parliament on two animal welfare policies, we show that different identities are salient. The strongest predictor is political group membership. In case of defections from the group line, the salience of national, sectoral and also demographic identities adds to the understanding of decision-making.     

Implementing EU climate and energy policies in Poland: policy feedback and reform

European Union (EU) climate/energy targets and policies are poised for the first full climate policy cycle – from adoption and implementation of the policy package for 2020, to reform for 2030. A dynamic approach to the ways in which EU policies affect policy development is developed by applying theories of domestic implementation, policy feedback and integration. Implementation experiences in Poland – the ‘least climate ambitious’ EU member state – affected Polish preferences for reformed EU policies. Existing EU policies, their ‘fit’ with Poland’s energy interests and change in anticipation of future EU policies explain much of the variation in preferences. Second, policy feedback from Poland significantly affected the EU 2030 climate and energy framework. As yet, the EU has succeeded only partly in gathering momentum through a ‘snowball’ effect whereby positive policy feedback from implementation generates further steps.