CLOUDS AND PRECIPITATION IN THE TEXAS HIGH PLAINS1

A study of the relationship among cloudiness, precipitable water vapor, stability and precipitation is presented for the Texas High Plains. A study of clouds during periods of above-normal rainfall indicates that precipitation during late fall and winter is associated with stratiform clouds which develop in conjunction with cyclonic activity. Spring and summer precipitation is most highly correlated with cumuliform clouds characteristic of convective activity. Investigation of other macroscale atmospheric features indicates that wet periods are further characterized by atmospheric instability and above-normal amounts of precipitable water vapor and water-vapor flux. Dry periods are associated with atmospheric circulation patterns which either serve to cut off the supply of low-level moisture, produce subsidence and consequent atmospheric stability, or both.     

西昌-攀枝花高速公路弃土场土壤侵蚀预报

为探讨高速公路施工期弃土场边坡的水土流失规律,对西昌—攀枝花高速公路一弃土场边坡进行了天然降雨条件下水土流失观测试验,结果表明,弃土场边坡的主要侵蚀形式是沟蚀,主要侵蚀因子是次降雨量和汇水平台宽度。最后提出了预测西昌—攀枝花高速公路弃土场边坡土壤侵蚀量的土壤侵蚀模型。     

GAGE DENSITY AND LOCATION FOR ESTIMATING MEAN ANNUAL PRECIPITATION IN MOUNTAINOUS AREAS1

ABSTRACT: Data from a network of 45 shielded precipitation gages on the Reynolds Creek Experimental Watershed in Southwestern Idaho were analyzed to determine the optimum gage density for estimating mean annual precipitation. Four subsets of the 45 gage network were used to derive a curve of mean annual precipitation versus number of gages with a confidence band at the 95 percent level. When less than 20 gages were used in the estimate, the confidence interval widens rapidly. Estimates were improved by stratifying gages on the basis of plant cover class or by elevation bands. Sixty-four percent of the variation in mean annual precipitation was accounted for by elevation and cover class. The aspect and hydrologic soil classification were not statistically significant.     

ESTIMATION OF SOIL MOISTURE WITH API ALGORITHMS AND MICROWAVE EMISSION1

Large area soil moisture estimations are required to describe input to cloud prediction models, rainfall distribution models, and global crop yield models. Satellite mounted microwave sensor systems that as yet can only detect moisture at the surface have been suggested as a means of acquiring large area estimates. Relations previously discovered between microwave emission at the 1.55 cm wavelength and surface moisture as represented by an antecedent precipitation index were used to provide a pseudo infiltration estimation. Infiltration estimates based on surface wetness on a daily basis were then used to calculate the soil moisture in the surface 0–23 cm of the soil by use of a modified antecedent precipitation index. Reasonably good results were obtained (R²= 0.7162) when predicted soil moisture for the surface 23 cm was compared to measured moisture. Where the technique was modified to use only an estimate of surface moisture each three days an R² value of 0.7116 resulted for the same data set. Correlations between predicted and actual soil moisture fall off rapidly for repeat observations more than three days apart. The algorithms developed in this study may be used over relatively flat agricultural lands to provide improved estimates of soil moisture to a depth greater than the depth of penetration for the sensor.     

SPATIAL VARIATION OF PRECIPITATION ON THE TEXAS HIGH PLAINS1

ABSTRACT: Space autocorrelation techniques have been used to reveal the nature and spatial distribution of precipitation in the Texas High Plains. Correlation in precipitation amounts varies with both distance and direction, dropping off rapidly with distance, particularly during the warm season. The analyses can be used to estimate storm characteristics in conjunction with a wide variety of problems dealing with irrigation, crop yields, drainage and water supply, and evaluation of artificial weather modification efforts.     

NITROGEN CONTENT AND ACIDITY OF RAIN ON THE GEORGIA COAST1

ABSTRACT: Since nitrogen is a nutrient frequently in short supply in coastal ecosystems, an estimate of the nitrogen input via rain was made for the Georgia coast. Water samples collected in 34 separate storms during a 12 month period were analysed for concentrations of ammonia, nitrate plus nitrite, and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON). The range and average concentration in micromoles of nitrogen per liter was 0.0 to 137 (6.3) for ammonia, 1.0 to 21 (7.9) for nitrate plus nitrite, and 0.0 to 13.6 (4.0) for DON. DON, not usually measured in rain, comprised up to 62% of the total nitrogen content. The annual amount of nitrogen contributed by rain to the coast was about 0.3 g N/m². This value is a small fraction of the calculated nitrogen requirements of coastal plants. More than half the rain samples had pH values less than the CO₂ equilibrium pH of 5.6. Values as low as 4.2 were in the range of pH values reported for acid rain in Europe and the northeastern U.S. Total titratable acidity was measured for 12 summer rainwater samples. The results fox 7 individual storms showed a highly linear relation between hydrogen ion concentration and total acidity. However, the elope of the regression line indicated that increases in acidity were not a result of addition of strong acid alone.     

A HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL RESEARCH PROGRAM1

ABSTRACT: An extensive research program in hydrometeorology was recently initiated in the Chicago region. Major objectives are to 1) develop a real-time, prediction-monitoring system for storm rainfall using a combination of weather radar and telemetered raingage data, 2) determine precipitation measurement requirements for hydrologic design, operation, and modeling purposes, 3) define the time-space characteristics of heavy rainstorms in the Chicago urban area, and 4) establish methods for applying the Chicago findings in other cities. Basic components of the field measurement program are a network of over 300 recording raingages in 4000 mi² in and around Chicago, plus two sophisticated weather radar systems for obtaining real-time information on storm parameters pertinent to optimizing operation of urban water resources systems. The raingage networks are to be used to compile information relevant to both design and operational aspects of urban hydrology. Radars are to be used primarily in developing the real-time operational techniques. Testing and evaluation of the real-time operational system will be done in cooperation with the Metropolitan Sanitary District of Chicago, operator of one of the most complex urban water control systems among major metropolitan areas.     

FOG DRIP IN THE BULL RUN MUNICIPAL WATERSHED,OREGON1

ABSTRACT: Net precipitation under old growth Douglas fir forest in the Bull Run Municipal Watershed (Portland, Oregon) totaled 1739 mm during a 4Cbweek period, 387 mm more than in adjacent clearcut areas. Expressing data on a full water year basis and adjusting gross precipitation for losses due to rainfall interception suggest fog drip could have added 882 mm (35 in) of water to total precipitation during a year when precipitation measured 2160 mm in a rain gage in a nearby clearing. Standard rain gages installed in open areas where fog is common may be collecting up to 30 percent less precipitation than would be collected in the forest. Long term forest management (Le., timber harvest) in the watershed could reduce annual water yield and, more importantly, summer stream flow by reducing fog drip.     

High acidity tolerance in lichens with fumarprotocetraric, perlatolic or thamnolic acids is correlated with low pKa1 values of these lichen substances

The depsidone fumarprotocetraric acid as well as the depsides perlatolic and thamnolic acids are lichen secondary metabolites. Their first dissociation constants (pK_a1) in methanol were determined to be 2.7 for perlatolic acid and 2.8 for fumarprotocetraric and thamnolic acids by UV spectroscopy. Lower pK_a1 values are, so far, not known from lichen substances. Several lichens producing at least one of these compounds are known for their outstanding tolerance to acidic air pollution. This is demonstrated by evaluating published pH preferences for central European lichens. The low pK_a1 values suggest that strong dissociation of the studied lichen substances is a prerequisite for the occurrence of lichens with these compounds on very acidic substrata, as protonated lichen substances of different chemical groups, but not their conjugated bases, are known to shuttle protons into the cytoplasm and thereby apparently damage lichens.