A Framework for Assessing Supply‐Side Wildlife Conservation

Market‐based, supply‐side interventions such as domestication, cultivation, and wildlife farming have been proposed as legal substitutes for wild‐collected plants and animals in the marketplace. Based on the literature, we devised a list of the conditions under which supply‐side interventions may yield positive conservation outcomes. We applied it to the trade of the orchid Rhynchostylis gigantea, a protected ornamental plant. We conducted a survey of R. gigantea at Jatujak Market in Bangkok, Thailand. Farmed (legal) and wild (illegal, protected) specimens of R. gigantea were sold side‐by‐side at market. These results suggest farmed specimens are not being substituted for wild plants in the marketplace. For any given set of physical plant characteristics (size, condition, flowers), the origin of the plants (wild vs. farmed) did not affect price. For all price classes, farmed plants were of superior quality to wild‐collected plants on the basis of most physical variables. These results suggest wild and farmed specimens represent parallel markets and may not be substitutable goods. Our results with R. gigantea highlight a range of explanations for why supply‐side interventions may lack effectiveness, for example, consumer preferences for wild‐collected products and low financial incentives for farming. Our results suggest that market‐based conservation strategies may not be effective by themselves and may be best utilized as supplements to regulation and education. This approach represents a broad, multidisciplinary evaluation of supply‐side interventions that can be applied to other plant and animal species. Un Marco de Referencia para Evaluar la Oferta de la Conservación de Vida Silvestre     

A global assessment of the social and conservation outcomes of protected areas

Protected areas (PAs) are a key strategy for protecting biological resources, but they vary considerably in their effectiveness and are frequently reported as having negative impacts on local people. This has contributed to a divisive and unresolved debate concerning the compatibility of environmental and socioeconomic development goals. Elucidating the relationship between positive and negative social impacts and conservation outcomes of PAs is key for the development of more effective and socially just conservation. We conducted a global meta‐analysis on 165 PAs using data from 171 published studies. We assessed how PAs affect the well‐being of local people, the factors associated with these impacts, and crucially the relationship between PAs’ conservation and socioeconomic outcomes. Protected areas associated with positive socioeconomic outcomes were more likely to report positive conservation outcomes. Positive conservation and socioeconomic outcomes were more likely to occur when PAs adopted comanagement regimes, empowered local people, reduced economic inequalities, and maintained cultural and livelihood benefits. Whereas the strictest regimes of PA management attempted to exclude anthropogenic influences to achieve biological conservation objectives, PAs that explicitly integrated local people as stakeholders tended to be more effective at achieving joint biological conservation and socioeconomic development outcomes. Strict protection may be needed in some circumstances, yet our results demonstrate that conservation and development objectives can be synergistic and highlight management strategies that increase the probability of maximizing both conservation performance and development outcomes of PAs.     

云南省出口经济应对绿色壁垒的环保对策

加入WTO后，我们出口产品在关税、许可证、配额等方面的壁垒已逐渐被打破，而以绿色壁垒为代表的非关税壁垒门槛却日益增高，云南省已经在黄磷、茶叶等工农业产品出口上因此而付出代价。应尽快开展出口型产口环境标准的研究与制订，积极推行合格评定制度，大力推行清洁生产，以应对绿色壁垒的挑战。     

国际贸易实务教学内容的探讨

《国际贸易实务》是一门专门研究国际间商品交换具体过程的学科,是一门具有涉外活动特点的实践性很强的综合性应用科学。本文对《国际贸易实务》的教学内容进行了一些探讨,主要包括:正确处理《国际贸易实务》与其它相关课程之间的关系;按照业务流程调整教学内容的结构安排;合理安排理论教学与实践教学的比例;不断更新教学内容;突出教学重点与难点;树立风险防范意识,有效防范风险。     

国际贸易实务教学内容的探讨

《国际贸易实务》是一门专门研究国际间商品交换具体过程的学科，是一门具有涉外活动特点的实践性很强的综合性应用科学。本文对《国际贸易实务》的教学内容进行了一些探讨，主要包括：正确处理《国际贸易实务》与其它相关课程之间的关系；按照业务流程调整教学内容的结构安排；合理安排理论教学与实践教学的比例；不断更新教学内容；突出教学重点与难点；树立风险防范意识，有效防范风险。     

Leakage and Comparative Advantage Implications of Agricultural Participation in Greenhouse Gas Emission Mitigation

The world is moving toward efforts to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions. Reduction efforts may involve the agricultural sector through options such as planting of trees, altering crop and livestock management, and increasing production of biofuels. However, such options can be competitive with domestic food production. In a free trade arena, reduced domestic food production could stimulate increased production and exports in other countries, which are not pursuing net emission reductions. As a consequence, emission reduction efforts in implementing countries may be offset by production increases stimulated in other countries. We examine the competitive effects of agriculturally related emission reduction actions on agricultural production and international trade. In doing this, we employ the assumption that U.S. emission reduction caused cost increases will also occur in other reducing countries. We consider emission reduction: 1) unilaterally by the U.S., 2) by all Kyoto Protocol Annex B countries, and 3) globally. The results, which are only suggestive of the types of effects that would be observed due to the simplifying cost assumptions, indicate compliance causes supply cutbacks in regulated countries and increases in non-regulated countries. The study results show that producers in regulating countries are likely to benefit and consumers lose due to commodity price increases. Seniority of Authorship is shared among the first three authors.     

从理论到实践的美国排污交易

阐述了排污交易产生的背景，排污权与排放许可证的概念，ＴＤＰ的理论研究和实践应用，排污交易政策在美国的发展等。美国的排污交易政策由补偿政策、气泡政策、净得政策和排污银行４项组成，以美国酸雨计划为例说明了排污交易的巨大环境经济效益，并给出了建议。     

环境管理的经济手段分析

环境管理中占主导地位的是直接管制手段，直接管制手段就是政府行政管理机构以指令控制的方式向污染排放者下达法令或提出具体的标准。直接管制在环境管理中取得了很好的成绩。但在环境和经济的协调效率上还不够灵活有效，显示出相当的局限性。阐述了排污收费,使用费，产品费,排污权交易、环境税收等常用的经济手段，并进行了比较分析。     

Inefficient environmental instruments and the gains from trade

The primary result from the trade and environment literature is that countries never lose from trade liberalization as long as they implement optimal pollution targets or if they hold emissions constant. These results are derived in models where the regulators use efficient instruments such as tradable permits or emission taxes. Regulators, however, continue to prefer command and control instruments. I show that regulation under these inefficient instruments (such as design standards or concentration standards) can lead to net losses under trade liberalization even if emissions are optimally adjusted for trade. Furthermore, holding the line on emissions need not guarantee welfare improvements either. The problem is that institutional distortions, the excess costs of inefficient instruments, can rise with trade and offset the material gains from trade. Hence the presumption that we can achieve gains from trade by considering only the level of emissions fails to recognize that the mode of regulation also matters.     

Structure and Operation of a Bushmeat Commodity Chain in Southwestern Ghana

Abstract:  The bushmeat trade is perceived as a major threat to wild animal populations in the tropics. Little is known of how the trade is organized, however, or of the actors involved in it, impeding the development of effective conservation policy. We investigated the structure and operation of a bushmeat commodity chain in West Africa that supplies a typical urban market, the city of Takoradi in southwestern Ghana. Data were collected from January through February 2000, describing 2430 bushmeat transactions encompassing 17 different taxa from 70 different actors, through a combination of direct observation and semistructured interviews. Five different types of actor traded along the commodity chain: commercial hunters, farmer hunters, wholesalers, market traders, and chopbar (cafe) owners. Bushmeat was traded freely among all these actors, although the primary trade route for terrestrial mammals was from commercial hunters via wholesalers to chopbars. In contrast, invertebrates were only traded by farmer hunters, market traders, and chopbars. Wholesalers captured the largest per capita share of the market (4% of all sales were handled by each wholesaler), whereas the most important vendors were chopbars, which as a group made 85% of all bushmeat sales to the public. Variation in the price of bushmeat was largely explained by transport costs and taste preferences. Transport costs were most significant for hunters and greatest on long journeys involving large loads. Nevertheless, hunters obtained the greatest income per kilogram of bushmeat sold of all actor groups. Our results suggest that there is no single best entry point along the bushmeat commodity chain for conservation intervention. On the contrary, the successful monitoring and management of the bushmeat trade is likely to require a multiactor approach that encompasses most or all actor groups.