The Use of Carbon and Nitrogen Isotopes to Study Watershed Erosion Processes1

Abstract:  Tracer studies are needed to better understand watershed soil erosion and calibrate watershed erosion models. For the first time, stable nitrogen and carbon isotopes (δ¹⁵N and δ¹³C) and the carbon to nitrogen atomic ratio (C/N) natural tracers are used to investigate temporal and spatial variability of erosion processes within a sub‐watershed. Temporal variability was assessed by comparing δ¹⁵N, δ¹³C, and C/N of eroded‐soils from a non‐equilibrium erosion event immediately following freezing and thawing of surface soils with two erosion events characterized by equilibrium conditions with erosion downcutting. Spatial variability was assessed for the equilibrium events by using the δ¹⁵N and δ¹³C signatures of eroded‐soils to measure the fraction of eroded‐soil derived from rill/interrill erosion on upland hillslopes as compared to headcut erosion on floodplains. In order to perform this study, a number of tasks were carried out including: (1) sampling source‐soils from upland hillslopes and floodplains, (2) sampling eroded‐soils with an in situ trap in the stream of the sub‐watershed, (3) isotopic and elemental analysis of the samples using isotope ratio mass spectrometry, (4) fractioning eroded‐soil to its upland rill/interrill and floodplain headcut end‐members using an unmixing model within a Bayesian Markov Chain Monte Carlo framework, and (5) evaluating tracer unmixing model results by comparison with process‐based erosion prediction models for rill/interrill and headcut erosion processes. Results showed that finer soil particles eroded during the non‐equilibrium event were enriched in δ¹⁵N and δ¹³C tracers and depleted in C/N tracer relative to coarser soil particles eroded during the equilibrium events. Correlation of tracer signature with soil particle size was explainable based on known biogeochemical processes. δ¹⁵N and δ¹³C were also able to distinguish between upland rill/interrill erosion and floodplain headcut erosion, which was due to different plant cover at the erosion sources. Results from the tracer unmixing model highlighted future needs for coupling rill/interrill and headcut erosion prediction models.     

SOIL MOISTURE ACCOUNTING COMPONENT OF THE USDAHL-74 MODEL OF WATERSHED HYDROLOGY1

ABSTRACT: Soil moisture in two layers of a soil near Chickasha, Oklahoma, was simulated, using USDAHL-74 Model of Watershed Hydrology. Weekly values computed for both layers compared well with those observed during the 15-month period. Certain key parameters required adjustments in the model which illustrate the need for accurate input information. The experiment demonstrates that the model, which has previously given good results in continuous streamflow prediction on watersheds up to 100 square miles, can also compute soil moisture continuously at a site. This capability suggests other model uses, for example, in monitoring the disposition of applied chemicals.     

OPTIMAL WATER USE AND SALINITY CONTROL FOR ENERGY - UPPER COLORADO RIVER BASIN1

ABSTRACT: The Upper Colorado River Basin contains appreciable amounts of undeveloped fuel resources. Large quantities of oil shale, coal, and uranium have attracted recent economic and commercial interests. Development of these resources and subsequent conversion to alternative energy forms require an adequate supply of water. Water use for large scale energy development will place increasing demands on an already overstressed allocation of Colorado River water. Present water quality is at a concentration where increased salinity will result in economic detriments to holders of downstream water rights. The salt and water exchange in mining, processing, and spent fuel disposal processes has been incorporated as part of a two-level minimum cost linear programming algorithm. Mathematical simulation results provide an optimal use of Upper Colorado River water for levels of energy output such that salinity concentrations are maintained below predetermined levels.     

THE APPLICATION OF HYDROLOGIC MODELS TO SMALL WATERSHEDS HAVING MILD TOPOGRAPHY1

ABSTRACT: The application of hydrologic models to small watersheds of mild topography is not well documented. This study evaluates the applicability of hydrologic models described by Huggins and the Soil Conservation Service to small watersheds by comparing the simulated and actual hydrograph for both gaged and ungaged situations. The annual maximum rainfall events plus storms exceeding 2.5 inches from 25 years of rainfall and runoff data for two small watersheds were selected for the model evaluations. These storms had a variety of patterns and occurred on many different watershed conditions. Simulated and actual hydrographs were compared using a parameter which contained volume, peak, and shape factors. One-half of the selected storms were used to calibrate the models. For both models, there were no significant differences between the simulated and actual runoff volumes and peak runoff rates. Parameters obtained during the calibration process and relationships developed to estimate antecedent moisture and to modify tabulated runoff curve numbers were used to simulate the runoff hydrograph from the remaining storms. These remaining storms or test storms were simulated only once in order to imitate an ungaged situation. In general, both the Huggins and SCS model performed similarly on the test storms, but the level of model performance was lower than that for the calibration storms. For both models, the two-day antecedent rainfall was more important than the five-day in determining antecedent moisture and modifying tabulated curve numbers. The time of concentration which resulted in good hydrograph simulations was about three times larger than that estimated using published empirical relationships.     

A quantitative succession model for nine montana forest communities

A quantitative succession model was developed both to meet resource management needs in Montana's Lewis and Clark National Forest and to develop a modeling methodology. It builds upon previous concepts and incudes three new features: quantitative prediction of all tree species and seedlings; quantitative predictions of important understory species; and successional pathways determined by fire intensity and scorch height. The method is described and demonstrated for selected Montana habitat (community) types. It is also available in managerial guidelines and has been programmed as a new module in theforplan simulator. Weaknesses of this and other models are discussed. Conclusions relate succession modeling to resource management needs.     

STORM WATER MANAGEMENT: THE CONCEPT AND ITS APPLICATION1

ABSTRACT: Storm water management is a concept being applied in many urban areas to deal with the increasing problems of storm runoff control and flood damage prevention. This paper introduces the concept and describes the recently completed storm water management program in Columbus, Georgia. Columbus has spent five years and over $200,000 in the development of their problem which includes several basic elements: soils inventory and analysis, hydrologic data collection, sediment and erosion control ordinance, storm water management handbook, urban flood simulation model, interdepartment coordination study, drainage problem categorization study, and a pilot basin study. The results of the pilot basin study are presented including example output from the urban simulation model. The computer output illustrates both the hydrologic-hydraulic and economic capabilities of the model.     

OBSERVATIONS ON KINEMATIC RESPONSE IN URBAN RUNOFF MODELS1

ABSTRACT: This paper first discusses the results of sensitivity analyses conducted on various parameters of the San Francisco Stormwater Model ta version of WREM) and the Penn State Runoff Model in terms of their impact on outflow hydrographs. The parameters considered within a idealized catchment include: basin shape, imperivous fraction, overland roughness and slope: deterntion depth; infiltration capacity; and hyetograph timing. Second, the results for the hypothetical catchment are extended to the lazzard laboratory surfaces (asphalt, grass, roofing material) as a mean of illustrating the need for changes in model structure, as opposed to continued parameter adjustment Finally the effect of altering the scale of hydraulic representation in the surface runoff and sewer transport calculations are demonstrated for two gaged watersheds in Hamburg, West Germany.     

DESK TOP METHODOLOGY FOR MODELING BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND IN STREAMS1

: The modeling of dissolved oxygen in streams is a widely used technique, upon which a great deal of money has been spent. This paper concludes that the standard methods of DO modeling by computer are unnecessarily complex, and that for some purposes, they can be replaced without loss of accuracy by desk top BOD models. Taking as an example, a set of data used in DO modeling, it is shown (a) that the data are grossly inconsistent, (b) that simultaneous gathering of data introduces errors in streams of long travel time, (c) that much more data as to pollutant concentrations should have been obtained, and (d) that 24-hour DO data could have been dispensed with.     

WATER QUALITY SIMULATION AND PUBLIC LAW 92–500 Case Study: Southwestern Illinois1

ABSTRACT: Section 208 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 has provided the Southwestern Illinois Metropolitan and Regional Planning Commission (SIMAPC) with a unique opportunity for comprehensive planning of the region's water quality. SIMAPC initiated the 208 study by researching available technology for the analysis of point and nonpoint sources of pollution and establishing criteria by which to judge the various technniques. This led to SIMAPC'S choice of continuous simulation of stream and reservoir water quality as the most appropriate analytical tool for their needs. A continuous simulation model was calibrated and verified on three basins in the SIMPAC region. It was then used to produce load source analysis, pollution event frequency analysis, and pollution event duration analysis for ten pollutants under existing stream conditions and then under alternative future conditions. These results enabled the weighting of pollutant sources, analysis of the effectiveness of control measures, and quantitative analysis of the marginal benefit of each alternative.