Groundwater dependent ecosystems. Part II. Ecosystem services and management in Europe under risk of climate change and land use intensification

Groundwater in sufficient amounts and of suitable quality is essential for potable water supplies, crop irrigation and healthy habitats for plant and animal biocenoses. The groundwater resource is currently under severe pressure from land use and pollution and there is evidence of dramatic changes in aquifer resources in Europe and elsewhere, despite numerous policy measures on sustainable use and protection of groundwater. Little is known about how such changes affect groundwater dependent ecosystems (GDEs), which include various aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems above ground and inside the aquifer. Future management must take this uncertainty into account. This paper focuses on multiple aspects of groundwater science, policy and sustainable management. Examples of current management methods and practices are presented for selected aquifers in Europe and an assessment is made of the effectiveness of existing policies such as the European Water Framework Directive and the Habitat Directive in practice and of how groundwaters and GDEs are managed in various conditions. The paper highlights a number of issues that should be considered in an integrated and holistic approach to future management of groundwater and its dependent ecosystems.     

腾格里沙漠东南部近地层沙尘水平通量和降尘

沙漠是近地层沙尘物质的重要来源之一,沙漠地区近地层水平输送的沙尘物质随高度的变化特征和不同高度处的沉降量直接影响着沙尘的输送过程. 选择腾格里沙漠东南缘流动沙丘区的风沙科学观测场为研究区,利用沙尘水平通量采集器和降尘测量器对近地层约50 m的不同高度水平运动的沙尘和降尘进行了近2年的观测,对沙漠地区近地层水平运动的沙尘随高度变化特征及不同高度的降尘量进行了讨论. 结果表明:沙尘的水平通量和降尘量均随高度的增加而减小,二者与高度均可表示为指数函数的关系; 同时,沙尘水平通量与降尘量之间存在正相关关系,二者可用线性函数相互转换.      

腾格里沙漠南缘沙层含水量与水分平衡研究

为了揭示腾格里沙漠沙层含水量和水分运移及平衡等科学问题,对甘肃民勤和宁夏中卫不同沙丘进行了含水量研究。结果显示,腾格里沙漠南缘沙层含水量空间变化明显,在垂向上分层清楚,水平方向上流动沙丘的含水量高于半固定和固定沙丘, 沙漠东南缘沙层含水量明显高于西南缘。甘肃民勤沙层含水量高值层段出现在剖面中上部;宁夏中卫毛管水带之上沙层含水量较高,指示沙层水分来自大气降水。研究区沙层水分主要以薄膜水的形式存在,在降水较多的沙漠东南缘出现了沙漠区极少出现的高含量薄膜水。该区沙层水分具正平衡特点,属于沙层水理性质决定的沙漠地区特殊的水分正平衡,这能够较好地解释极端干旱的沙漠区湖泊较多和地下水资源较为丰富的原因。论文还提出了研究区水分运移的两种模式。     

Using Force Analysis to Target Collection and Analysis of Environmental Information

Knowledge of the forces driving and modifying ecosystems can be employed in concert with signal analysis to target the data most likely to yield sensitivity and resilience information. One can optimize return of information per investment of resources by targeting segments of signals that are dominated by the force of interest, coupled with scientific understanding of the system of interest. This force analysis approach is an effective means both to design efficient new monitoring programs and to target relevant information in large data files. We present five example applications of force analysis. Three examples illustrate this approach for an evaluation of whether Canadian rivers might be sensitive to changes in climate. It was concluded that Canadian rivers appear to be sensitive to changing climate. A fourth example illustrates how automated snow pillow data may be evaluated to ascertain the sensitivity of snow accumulation to change in climate. It was concluded that snow accumulation at the site evaluated did appear to be sensitive to changing climate. The fifth example illustrates the assessment of whether a river recovers with the elimination of inputs of iron from an abandoned mine. It was concluded that resilience remained unproven since the river had not as yet restabilized. The force analysis approach focuses data collection or data evaluation on those data required to answer specific resource management questions, greatly reducing collection or consideration of data that are not relevant to that question. This approach is potentially very cost-efficient and therefore is likely to be of interest to hydrologists, climatologists, and environmental data managers.     

Riparian vegetation dynamics and evapotranspiration in the riparian corridor in the delta of the Colorado River, Mexico

Like other great desert rivers, the Colorado River in the United States and Mexico is highly regulated to provide water for human use. No water is officially allotted to support the natural ecosystems in the delta of the river in Mexico. However, precipitation is inherently variable in this watershed, and from 1981-2004, 15% of the mean annual flow of the Lower Colorado River has entered the riparian corridor below the last diversion point for water in Mexico. These flows include flood releases from US dams and much smaller administrative spills released back to the river from irrigators in the US and Mexico. These flows have germinated new cohorts of native cottonwood and willow trees and have established an active aquatic ecosystem in the riparian corridor in Mexico. We used ground and remote-sensing methods to determine the composition and fractional cover of the vegetation in the riparian corridor, its annual water consumption, and the sources of water that support the ecosystem. The study covered the period 2000-2004, a flood year followed by 4 dry years. The riparian corridor occupies 30,000ha between flood control levees in Mexico. Annual evapotranspiration (ET), estimated by Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS) satellite imagery calibrated against moisture flux tower data, was about 1.1myr(-1) and was fairly constant throughout the study period despite a paucity of surface flows 2001-2004. Total ET averaged 3.4x10(8)m(3)yr(-1), about 15% of Colorado River water entering Mexico from the US Surface flows could have played only a small part in supporting these high ET losses. We conclude that the riparian ET is supported mainly by the shallow regional aquifer, derived from agricultural return flows, that approaches the surface in the riparian zone. Nevertheless, surface flows are important in germinating cohorts of native trees, in washing salts from the soil and aquifer, and in providing aquatic habitat, thereby enriching the habitat value of the riparian corridor for birds and other wildlife. Conservation and water management strategies to enhance the delta habitats are discussed in light of the findings.     

Testing a Scandinavian Biodiversity Assessment Tool in an African Desert Environment

Life cycle assessment-based environmental product declarations (EPDs) require the inclusion of biodiversity impacts across the entire supply chain. The objective of this study is to test the applicability of a Scandinavian biodiversity assessment tool, developed specifically for use with EPD applications, in an African desert environment, linking the industry types power generation and mining. For this purpose, a GIS-based spatial analysis tool—the biotope method—was adapted to a framework approach which allowed the selection of more suitable, site-specific biodiversity indicators. The biotope method provides a step-by-step process of defining system boundaries, mapping biotopes, categorizing biotopes based on site-specific indicators, and evaluating change in biotope status “before” and “after” the impact. The development of site-specific indicators was piloted in this study and determined by the affected ecosystem and the status of knowledge on biodiversity in this geographic area. Thus plants were used as indicators for biodiversity, and red-list status and endemism constituted the prime criteria for conservation value of plants. This in turn represented the key criterion for classifying biotopes. The tested biodiversity assessment tool has potential for application in different environments and operational settings but leaves room for improvement by including secondary impacts in the assessment and using a wider range of taxa for indicators of biodiversity.     

Causes and consequences of woody plant encroachment into western North American grasslands

As woody plants encroach into grasslands, grass biomass, density and cover decline as wood plant biomass, density and cover increase. There is also a shift in location of the biomass from mostly belowground in the grasslands to aboveground in the woodlands. In addition, species richness and diversity change as herbaceous species are replaced by woody species. This is not a new phenomenon, but has been going on continually as the climate of the Planet has changed. However, in the past 160 years the changes have been unparalleled. The process is encroachment not invasion because woody species that have been increasing in density are native species and have been present in these communities for thousands of years. These indigenous or native woody species have increased in density, cover and biomass because of changes in one or more abiotic or biotic factors or conditions. Woody species that have increased in density and cover are not the cause of the encroachment, but the result of changes of other factors. Globally, the orbit of the Earth is becoming more circular and less elliptical, causing moderation of the climate. Additional global climate changing factors including elevated levels of CO₂ and parallel increases in temperature are background factors and probably not the principal causes directing the current wave of encroachment. There is probably not a single reason for encroachment, but a combination of factors that are difficult to disentangle. The prime cause of the current and recent encroachment appears to be high and constant levels of grass herbivory by domestic animals. This herbivory reduces fine fuel with a concomitant reduction in fire frequency or in some cases a complete elimination of fire from these communities. Conditions would now favor the woody plants over the grasses. Reduced grass competition, woody plant seed dispersal and changes in animal populations seem to modify the rate of encroachment rather than being the cause. High concentrations of atmospheric CO₂ are not required to explain current woody plant encroachment. Changes in these grassland communities will continue into the future but the specifics are difficult to predict. Density, cover and species composition will fluctuate and will probably continue to change. Increased levels of anthropogenic soil nitrogen suggest replacement of many legumes by other woody species. Modification and perhaps reversal of the changes in these former grassland communities will be an arduous, continuing and perhaps impossible management task.     

基于无人机垂直观测塔克拉玛干沙漠一次沙尘污染过程研究

利用多旋翼无人机于2021年7月30—31日对塔克拉玛干沙漠的塔中（飞行高度0~2000 m）、民丰地区（飞行高度0~1000 m）不同粒径 颗粒物浓度、气温、相对湿度和风速进行垂直观测,结合多地面站点、再分析资料、后向轨迹模型和卫星遥感数据,对沙尘污染过程中的影响 因素、颗粒物垂直分布特征及污染成因进行了分析.结果表明：①近地面低气温、高相对湿度、高风速的气象条件有利于沙尘污染事件的发生,通过无人机探测数据发现高相对湿度有利于颗粒物吸湿增长,气温和风速的上升能够加强大气对流运动,有利于污染物的输送.②在沙尘污染期间,塔中地区PM₁、PM_2.5和PM₁₀的浓度分别为0.8~45.7、1.0~267.0和1.0~588.7 μg·m^-3;民丰地区PM₁、PM_2.5和PM₁₀的浓度分别为21.5~126.9、39.6~263.6和48.5~520.6 μg·m^-3.③在沙尘污染期间,塔克拉玛干沙漠腹地颗粒物组成以粗颗粒物为主,南缘则以细颗粒物为主.民丰地区PM₁/PM_2.5比值（0.48~0.55）和PM_2.5/PM₁₀比值（0.55~0.83）在同时刻均高于塔中地区（PM₁/PM_2.5为0.18~0.33, PM_2.5/PM₁₀为0.33~0.51）.④天气形势和后向轨迹表明,此次污染主要由西风环流导致,气团分别从北面翻越天山和东面绕道进入塔克拉玛干沙漠,携带了塔克拉玛干沙漠东部地区沙尘颗粒和新疆北部人为污染物.⑤CALIPSO卫星数据表明,此次污染中气溶胶存在于海拔1~8 km之间,主要集中在低层（消光系数在 海拔1.0~2.2 km左右最大）.气溶胶类型为沙尘气溶胶、污染沙尘气溶胶和烟雾气溶胶,其中,沙尘气溶胶占主要部分.     

巴丹吉林沙漠高大沙山区沙层含水量与水分来源探讨

为了查明巴丹吉林沙漠高大沙山区沙层含水量、水分来源等问题,于2009年5月大沙山区进行了15个5 m深钻孔的采样研究。结果表明,巴丹吉林沙漠高大沙山区干沙层分布深度比降水较多地区干沙层分布深度大,湿沙层含水量比降水多的地区低,指示该区的湿沙层含水量一般小于2%是当地气候条件下的正常现象。该区沙层水分主要以薄膜水的形式存在,并具有向下运移的特点,表明完全有可能成为湖水和地下水的来源之一。高大沙山区沙层含水量空间差异明显,洼地含水量最高与平地含水量较高,是大气降水向地下入渗的渠道。高大沙山区厚度小的干沙层的存在表明该区沙层水分受蒸发作用影响深度小,这能够有力促进大气降水通过入渗转化为地下水,这是在极端干旱气候条件下大气降水有可能入渗到达地下水位并成为湖水来源的主要原因。该区水分具有正平衡的显示,这是沙层水分入渗快和受蒸发作用影响深度小造成的,属于沙层水理性质决定的水分正平衡。     

塔克拉玛干沙漠近48年起尘速率变化趋势分析

采用美国环境保护局推荐的公式,分析了塔克拉玛干沙漠1960~2008年PM50和PM30起尘速率的变化趋势及影响因子. 结果表明,1960~2008年, 塔克拉玛干沙漠PM50和PM30起尘速率及沙尘暴频率均呈显著减小趋势, 粉尘粒径越细, 起尘速率减幅越大;塔克拉玛干沙漠21世纪初的风沙活动比上世纪60年代减小了65.01%~85.14%;年均风速的减少和年降水量的增加对PM50起尘速率减少的贡献率分别为37.8%和62.2%, 年均风速和起沙风频率的减少及年降水量的增加对PM30起尘速率减少的贡献率分别为9.1%、33.2%和57.7%, 年均风速和起沙风频率的减少对沙尘暴频率减少的贡献率分别为41.3%和58.7%;大风沙尘天气可能使大气中粗、细颗粒物总量均有所增加, 但细颗粒物增加更明显.