国际贸易中的环境要项

环境要素在流动性决定了国际间环境与贸易的紧密联系。随着世界快速的经济一体化，将环境要项纳入国际贸易的规范、条款已势在必行。文章分析了环境成本内在化和ＩＳＯ１４０００的实质，它们的内在联系及在国际贸易中的作用和影响，提出了将ＩＳＯ１４０００作为实施环境成本内在化的参照规则的合理、可行性。     

A case study on project-level CO2 mitigation costs in industrialised countries: the Climate Cent Foundation in Switzerland

This paper analyses CO₂ emissions reduction costs based on project data from the Climate Cent Foundation (CCF), a climate policy instrument in Switzerland. Four conclusions are drawn. First, for the projects investigated, the CCF on average pays €63/ton. Due to the Kyoto Protocol, the CCF buys reductions only until 2012. This cut-off increases reported per ton reduction costs, as the additional lifetime project costs are set in relation to reductions only until 2012, rather than to reductions realised over the whole lifetime. Lifetime reduction costs are €45/t. Second, correlation between CCF's payments and lifetime reduction costs per ton is low. Projects with low per ton reduction costs should thus be identified based on lifetime per ton reduction costs. Third, the wide range of project costs per ton observed casts doubts on the widely used identification of the merit order of reduction measures based on average per ton costs for technology types. Finally, the CCF covers only a fraction of additional reduction costs. Decisions to take reduction efforts thus depend on additional, non-observable and/or non-economic motives. Any generalisation of results has to consider that this analysis is based on prospective costs of a sub-sample of projects in Switzerland.     

中国二氧化碳的边际减排成本与区域差异研究

测算二氧化碳的边际减排成本有利于评估区域碳减排潜力与成本,也是落实区域碳交易政策的重要依据。在多投入-多产出的生产效率模型框架下,本文采用二次型方向距离函数,研究了全国30个省份2000—2012年期间的碳边际减排成本及其差异的时空演化特征。二次型方向距离函数通过引用时间变量,反应环境治理的中性技术进步,因此研究方法能充分利用参数估计的灵活性。研究结果显示:1二氧化碳的边际减排成本平均约为1 519元/吨,远高于我国碳市场的交易价格,表明当前试点的自愿性碳交易政策是无效的;2区域碳边际减排成本的泰尔指数分解表明,东中西部地区的减排成本存在明显的地区性差异性,且随着时间的推进,碳减排空间逐渐变小。减排成本的地区性差异表明环境规制政策并不能保证各地区碳治理成本的边际均等原则,而利用政策工具,促使碳排放权从治理成本较高的地区转移至成本较低的地区,可以减少总治理成本,实现总量控制目标。本文建议:一方面,为实现国家碳减排的总体宏观目标,各区域要加强合作,相互借鉴成功的碳减排技术与经验等,在执行政策上,应尝试执行区域协同治理机制,努力降低总减排成本;另一方面,各区域在推进产业结构调整、城镇化及能源消费结构替代过程中要遵从循序渐进原则,避免碳减排成本过度波动,增加减排难度。     

CO2减排潜能和基于边际成本的补偿制度

提出了一种基于CO2排放强度的减排潜能计算方法,根据该方法对我国29个省、直辖市、自治区（不含新疆和西藏）未来减排潜能进行了分析.同时,采用麻省理工学院开发的RPPA模型对我国各个省、直辖市、自治区减排边际成本进行了计算,基于该减排边际成本,提出了省际间CO2补偿制度,并对补偿主体、补偿客体、补偿金额和补偿制度运行提出了建议,以期为我国发展低碳经济,促进各省区公平、协调发展提供借鉴.     

External cost internalisation of urban transport: a case study of Dublin

Transport users do not currently pay all costs associated with their transport activities and in particular do not pay the costs they impose on the environment. Case studies on Dublin, Amsterdam, Brussels and London have been conducted to evaluate how best to meet the requirement of the European Commission in its fair and efficient pricing aims in the transport sector, i.e. where transport users are made to pay all costs they impose. The paper presents the results of Do Nothing (DN) and Do Something (DS) scenarios for 2005 where in the latter case each transport user pays for all costs they impose including pollution, noise, accidents etc. The Dublin results, from an economics model used in the study, are examined in detail; the findings are compared with those of parallel studies conducted in the other cities to demonstrate the international relevance of this work. The comparison between the DN and DS scenarios indicates that taxes on all transport modes should be increased substantially, particularly in the morning and evening peak periods. As a result of the price increases, travel demand is reduced. A practical example where transport users could be made to pay for all their costs is road use pricing, i.e. charging individuals for the use of road space. The taxation levels suggested in the DS scenario have been used in a road use pricing trial in Dublin, the results of which were published in O'Mahony, Geraghty and Humphreys (Transportation 27, 269-283, 2000), to see if the reductions in the travel requirements of individuals proposed by the economics model are in fact true. The principles of the work presented in this paper are not only relevant to environmental impact management in the transport sector but can also be applied to other sectors.     

A Transactions Cost Approach to the Theoretical Foundations of Water Markets1

Abstract: Water marketing is often cited as a means of alleviating the stresses attached to allocation of water use. Frequently, marketing is suggested in a context that implies substitution of competitive markets for the allocation based on the prior appropriation doctrine. This study examines water marketing from the perspective of a transactions cost approach to the private and broad social agreements (contracts) that support water allocation. It examines the major behavioral challenges faced by any contract, and the alternative approaches to those challenges, with respect to water allocation. It also examines the impact of market design on the existence of externalities, costs imposed by transactions on society and individuals not party to the transaction. It finds that the most robust water market designs will be found in systems with sufficient property rights protection to support investment, sufficient hydrologic information to provide accurate analysis of third party effects, conjunctive management of surface and groundwater, and a governance structure capable of administering the rules while not determining outcomes.     

COST COMPARISON BETWEEN CESSPOOL AND SANITARY SEWERAGE SYSTEMS IN SAUDI URBAN AREAS1

ABSTRACT: Extensive use is made of on-site wastewater disposal systems of cesspools due to the absence of a sanitary sewerage system in Saudi urban areas. This system has caused the groundwater table to rise to a public nuisance level. A health risk has also evolved. There are several infrastructural, environmental, and social impacts from this, resulting in great financial losses. Examples are: surface water flooding, damage to foundations of buildings and asphalt street pavements, flooded basements and added construction costs required for excavation, dewatering, insulation materials, and special cements. Most of these costs are indirectly being paid by the private and public sectors. This study compares the estimated costs of damage and losses with the estimated costs of building, operating, and maintaining sanitary sewerage systems in the cesspool-served areas. The annual cost of the cesspool system, depending on the severity of the adverse impacts, ranges from 2.2 to 4.4 times the annual cost of the sanitary sewerage system. Remedies for these impacts are very expensive, and delays in the implementation of the sanitary sewerage facility will make the damage recovery more expensive, and in some cases, impossible. Thus, it is recommended that highest priority to be given to the sanitary sewerage systems in Saudi urban areas.     

环境成本的内在化问题

环境成本是指人类经济活动引起的环境损失。主流经济学认为，外部性与产权是产生环境污染的经济根源，减少环境成本的实质是通过一定的手段将环境成本内在化。不同的治理手段具有不同的治理成本，一般而言，经济手段具有更高的经济效率和较低的成本，但管制手段也有其存在的意义。解决我国的环境成本问题需要树立生态经济协调发展模式，让企业成为污染治理的主体，建立环境补偿机制等。     

Technique for assessing erosion risk from mountain footpaths

One of the most pressing problems facing wilderness managers in the ecologically fragile Drakensberg Mountains, South Africa, is that of path erosion, since it detracts from the wilderness experience and is very costly to remediate. As increasing demand for wilderness and outdoor recreation places greater pressure on paths and trails, it will be necessary to increase path network size and capacity, and it is important that new paths are routed such that maintenance requirements are minimal. This study describes the development of a technique based on the site and environmental variables of rainfall, topographic slope, and lithology, which enables assessment of path erosion risk before paths are planned and constructed. The technique was tested on a path at the Drakensberg resort of Loteni, and showed good correlation with actual path degradation. When used as a tool in path network planning, it can aid in the selection of low-maintenance routes and also help in planning maintenance budgets.     

绿色经济视角下环渤海经济圈经济效率的再评价——基于熵权法和DEA—Malmquist方法

长期以传统GDP作为衡量经济发展的单一评价指标,造成了一系列环境问题,已不能满足科学发展观的要求。以绿色经济为视角,通过计量方法重新计算包含环境成本的相对绿色GDP,发现环渤海地区除北京市以外,在经济总量扩张的同时环境压力不断增加。将计算得到的相对绿色GDP作为DEA—Malmquist模型的产出指标,重新评价环渤海地区的经济效率,发现新的效率值明显低于传统GDP下的经济效率,并有不断下降的趋势。