Impacts of home shopping on vehicle operations and greenhouse gas emissions: multi-year regional study

As a shopping behavior trend, home shopping has become more popular. This shopping method seems to decrease shopping trips, yet more delivery trucks are required to be on the roads. In addition, even more personal trips may occur because saving time on shopping might allow more time for alternate activities. A study investigated the effects of home shopping on vehicle operations and greenhouse gas emissions. The purpose of that study was to identify the home-shopping impacts on transportation system, its net effects on traffic volume of the transportation network, its effects associated with environmental sustainability and then to provide some projections for future condition. Simulation results showed that home shopping will put additional burden on Newark transportation network, as identified through four measures of effectiveness (MOEs) which were travel time, delay, average speed and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.     

Use Impairments and Ecosystem Impacts of the New York Bight

The New York Bight is perhaps one of the most used and abused coastal areas in the world as a consequence of urbanization and the disposal of the waste of some 20 million people who reside by its shores and surrounding bays and estuaries. A variety of sources, including those associated with sewage wastes, industrial wastes, contaminated dredged material, urban runoff, and atmospheric fallout contaminate these coastal waters. Many of the stresses of excess population and industrialization as measured by pollutant loadings and ecosystem impacts can be crudely quantified in terms of use impairments-use impairments that have measurable social and economic relevance. Five broad categories of impairment attributed to pollution in the Bight that are causing significant losses of ecological, economic, or social values are: beach closures, unsafe seafoods, hazards to commercial and recreational navigation, loss of commercial and recreational fisheries, and declines in birds, mammals and turtles. These impairments are generally caused by floatable wastes, nutrients, toxicants, pathogens and habitat loss. Measures of such impairments are not standard, nor in many cases totally quantifiable. We have examined specific subsets of these impairments in terms of their spatial and temporal changes and as a first approximation determined the economic and social significance of these changes. the cost of these impaired uses of the Bight are measured in terms of billions of dollars annually for New York and New Jersey.     

Snowstorm catastrophes in the United States

Extremely damaging snowstorms, those causing more than $1 million in property losses across the US, were studied, and the spatial and temporal characteristics of the storm activity during 1949–2001 were defined. There were 155 catastrophic snowstorms and they caused insured losses of $21.6 billion (2001 dollars). The northeastern US had the nation's maximum storm occurrences (79 storms), greatest total losses ($7.3 billion), and highest storm intensity. Two-thirds of all US losses occurred in the Northeast, Southeast, and Central climate regions, and storm occurrences and losses were least in the western US. The incidence of storms peaked during the 1976–1985 period and exhibited no up or down trend during 1949–2001. However, losses had a significant upward time trend, as did storm sizes and intensity. New York and Pennsylvania had the greatest number of storms with fewest in Montana, Idaho, and Utah. Time distribution of losses in the northeastern and southeastern US were U-shaped with flat time trends for 1949–2001. Losses in the western regions and Deep South had distinct upward trends in losses, storm intensity, and storm size. More than 90 percent of all storm losses in the western US have occurred since 1980. These findings indicate that rapidly growing population and property at risk have been major factors in increasing losses as well as atmospheric changes leading to greater storm intensity and size.     

Cumulative impacts on wetlands: Linking scientific assessments and regulatory alternatives

This article is an extension and application of Preston and Bedford (1988), especially as relevant to bottomland hardwood (BLH) forests of the southeastern United States. The most important cumulative effects in BLH forests result from incremental forest loss (nibbling) and from synergisms resulting from this nibbling. Present regulatory procedures are ineffective in preventing incremental forest loss because of the focus on permit site evaluation, rather than on large landscapes. Three examples are given to illustrate the need for a landscape focus. This perspective requires preplanning or goal-setting to establish the desired conditions to be maintained in the regulated landscape unit.Spatial and temporal scales are of particular concern for landscape impact assessment. Natural drainage basins of about 10⁶ ha, as identified in U.S. Geological Survey hydrologic units, appear to appropriate spatial units: they have fairly natural boundaries, are of sufficient size to support populations of large, wide-ranging mammals, and are compatible with existing maps and databases. Time scales should be sufficiently long to include recovery of wetland ecosystems from human perturbations. In practice, available data sets limit analysis to no longer than 50 yr. Eight indicators of landscape integrity are identified, based on generally available long-term data sets.Linking technical information concerning cumulativeeffects on landscapes to the evaluation of cumulativeimpacts in regulatory programs (i.e., goal-setting) is a serious issue that can benefit from precedents found in the field of epidemiology, and in the establishment of clean air and clean water standards. We suggest that reference data sets must be developed, relating BLH function to structure (forest area). These can be used to set goals for individual watersheds, based on their present conditions and the magnitude and type of perceived development pressures. Thus the crucial steps in establishing a successful program appear to be (1) establish study unit boundaries, (2) assess the condition of study unit landscape integrity, (3) set goals, and (4) consider the impacts of permit proposals with both goals and the existing condition of the study unit landscape in mind.     

Caribbean small-island tourism styles and sustainable strategies

This article focuses on developing a sustainable tourism in small Caribbean islands, defined here as those that have populations of fewer than 500,000. Such islands share a very fragile ecology and a high dependence on tourism. They differ in their degree of tourist penetration and visitor density and the related degree of environmental degradation. To explain the link between tourism intensity and ecological vulnerability, the so-called “destination life-cycle model” is presented. This suggests that islands pass through three primary stages of tourist development low-density exploration, rapid growth and consolidation, and high-density maturation involving the substitution of man-made for natural attractions. A broad empirical test of the model is performed through a quantitative examination of the tourism characteristics and visitor densities of a cross section of 23 small Caribbean islands. The three basic stages or tourism styles are identified: low-impact emerging areas, high-density mass-market mature destinations, and rapidly growing intermediate islands in between. Some broad strategies consistent with the systems framework for a sustainable tourism with moderate densitites are briefly explored. An earlier version of this article was presented to Caribbean Conservation Association Conference on Economics and the Environment. Barbados, West Indies, 6–8 November, 1989.     

Ecotourism and Community Development: Case Studies from Hainan,China

The connections between people, parks, and tourism have received significant attention in recent years, recognizing the potential for mutually beneficial relationships. Ecotourism has been promoted and widely adopted as a strategy for funding conservation initiatives, while at the same time contributing to the socioeconomic development of host communities and providing for quality tourism experiences. Parks are among the most common ecotourism destinations. Employing interviews, observations and secondary sources, this study assesses the current status of ecotourism at two protected areas in Hainan, China, where it is being promoted as a strategy for balancing regional economic growth and conservation objectives. Through an evaluation of the existing tourism–park–community relationships, opportunities and constraints are identified. Ecotourism development was found to be at an early stage at both study sites. Socioeconomic benefits for the local communities have been limited and tourism activity has not contributed revenues towards conservation to date. Community residents, nevertheless, generally support conservation and are optimistic that tourism growth will yield benefits. In light of the study findings and the salient literature, planning direction is offered with the intention of enhancing the capacity of ecotourism to generate benefits for both communities and the parks, and thus contribute to the sustainable development of the region more generally. Lessons derived have broad applicability for ecotourism destinations elsewhere.     

Effects of Bridge Shading on Estuarine Marsh Benthic Invertebrate Community Structure and Function

The effect of bridge shading on estuarine marsh food webs was assessed by comparing benthic invertebrate communities beneath seven highway bridges with marshes outside of bridge-affected areas (reference marshes). We used light attenuation and height–width ratio (HW ratio), which takes into account the two main bridge characteristics that determine the degree of shading, to quantify the impact of shading on invertebrate communities. Low bridges, with HW ratio <0.7 and light attenuation greater than 85–90%, had benthic invertebrate densities and diversity that were significantly lower than reference marshes. Density of benthic invertebrates at low bridges was 25–52% (29,685–72,920 organisms/m²) of densities measured in adjacent reference marshes (119,329–173,351 organisms/m²). Likewise, there were fewer taxa under low bridges (5.8/11.35 cm² core) as compared to the reference marshes (9.0/11.35 cm² core). Density of numerically dominant taxa (e.g., oligochaetes and nematodes) as well as surface- and subsurface deposit feeders also were reduced under low bridges. Decreased invertebrate density, diversity, dominant taxa, and alterations of trophic feeding groups beneath low bridges was correlated with diminished above- and below-ground macrophyte biomass that presumably resulted in fewer food resources and available refuges from predators. With a greater knowledge of bridge shading effects, bridge construction and design may be improved to reduce the impacts on estuarine benthic invertebrate communities and overall ecosystem structure and function.     

Impacts of Experimentally Applied Mountain Biking and Hiking on Vegetation and Soil of a Deciduous Forest

Many recent trail degradation problems have been attributed to mountain biking because of its alleged capacity to do more damage than other activities, particularly hiking. This study compared the effects of experimentally applied mountain biking and hiking on the understory vegetation and soil of a deciduous forest. Five different intensities of biking and hiking (i.e., 0, 25, 75, 200 and 500 passes) were applied to 4-m-long × 1-m-wide lanes in Boyne Valley Provincial Park, Ontario, Canada. Measurements of plant stem density, species richness, and soil exposure were made before treatment, two weeks after treatment, and again one year after treatment. Biking and hiking generally had similar effects on vegetation and soil. Two weeks after treatment, stem density and species richness were reduced by up to 100% of pretreatment values. In addition, the amount of soil exposed increased by up to 54%. One year later, these treatment effects were no longer detectable. These results indicate that at a similar intensity of activity, the short-term impacts of mountain biking and hiking may not differ greatly in the undisturbed area of a deciduous forest habitat. The immediate impacts of both activities can be severe but rapid recovery should be expected when the activities are not allowed to continue. Implications of these results for trail recreation are discussed.     

Golf Course Development in a Major Tourist Destination: Implications for Planning and Management

The planning and design of golf course developments is influenced by many factors. This paper focuses on the environmental ramifications of insufficient or lack of compliance with standard environmental and economic planning practices. Specifically, it looks at a tourist destination location that was under the influence of extensive land development and investment speculation. The Gold Coast in Australia was the focal point for large overseas investment due to changes in government legislation regarding foreign investment. Due to the economic climate in the second half of the 1980s many golf course resort developments were built, approved, or planned. Many of these circumvented normal business and environment planning processes. The result has been a dangerous concentration of golf facilities in environmentally sensitive areas and an oversupply of golf facilities. Both of these matters are discussed in terms of the general planning process and the potential economic and environmental impacts to the Gold Coast and similar destinations in other parts of the world.     

Environmental Issues in Brackish Water Shrimp Aquaculture in Sri Lanka

Shrimp exports are one of Sri Lanka's major foreign exchange earners and account for 40%–50% of total aquaculture exports. There has been a recent and rapid expansion of the industry in the Northwestern Province (NWP) of Sri Lanka but the industry has suffered from disease outbreaks and environmental problems. Currently, shrimp farms cover nearly 3000 ha of the coastal area of the NWP. The environmental impacts of shrimp cultivation in general are well known and numerous research studies have been done. However, little work has been carried out in Sri Lanka. This study provides some necessary background to brackish water shrimp aquaculture in Sri Lanka. It focuses briefly on the development of shrimp aquaculture and the current status of the industry. Emphasis is placed on two broader aspects—impacts on the existing wetland ecosystem and on the environment. These impacts are presumed to be the main causes hindering the growth of the industry and raising widespread public protest. Current ecosystem and environmental management practices are discussed. Finally, strategic issues for management and sustainable growth are discussed.