Consumer Autonomy and Sufficiency of GMF Labeling

Individuals’ food choices are intimately connected to their self-images and world views. Some dietary choices adopted by consumers pose restrictions on their use of genetically modified food (GMF). It is quite generally agreed that some kind of labeling is necessary for respecting consumers’ autonomy of choice regarding GMF. In this paper, we ask whether the current practice of mandatory labeling of GMF products in the European Union is a sufficient administrative procedure for respecting consumers’ autonomy. Three issues concerning this question are discussed. First, we argue that labeling needs to be accompanied by relevant and understandable information on genetic modification, genetically modified food, and the European practice of GMF labeling. Second, we claim that this type of informing makes it less likely that consumers start to avoid GMF products just because labels make them suspicious of the products. It is further noted that even though some consumers may react to labels this way, labels do not restrict their autonomy of choice. Third, a need for more precise labels indicating the source of the transferred gene is considered. It is found out that such labels are not morally necessary when also non-GMF products are available and no relevant differences (such as differences in price and healthiness) exist between them and GMF products. However, in some other cases more precise labels may be needed for respecting consumers’ autonomy of choice.     

Prenatal diagnosis for women aged 37 years and over: to have or not to have

Forty percent of pregnant women aged 37 years and over do not have prenatal diagnosis despite being eligible for a free test. The present study aimed to determine how often, and which, untested women were making a choice about this, how many declined an offer and why. A questionnaire was given to untested women, aged 37 years and over, at no less than 24 weeks gestation. A total of 375 (81.5%) women declined, 72 (16%) were not offered a test and 13 presented too late antenatally. There was a three-fold increased likelihood (OR 3.10 95% CI 1.44, 6.65) of no offer for urban non-English speaking background women, compared with the reference group (metropolitan, English speaking). Unpartnered women were also significantly less likely to receive an offer (OR 3.18, 95% CI 1.19, 8.46). Risk to the baby was the main reason for declining. When offered non-invasive prenatal screening, most decliners of prenatal diagnosis accepted, even those who declined because they were opposed to abortion. We estimate that overall 33% of older pregnant women were being offered and declining amniocentesis and/or chorion villus sampling (CVS). Only 6% were not offered a test, but this small proportion is over-represented by minority groups who must be given equal opportunity to make this choice. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

From eavesdropping on performance to copying the behavior of others: a review of public information use

Public information (PI), a form of indirect social information, is used by individuals to estimate the quality of environmental parameters. It can be acquired in two ways. One way is by noting the performance of others. The other way it can be acquired is by noting the behavioral decisions of other individuals. Performance-based PI has been observed most often in the context of food and breeding patch estimation, as well as by individuals eavesdropping on contests between others in the context of assessing the fighting ability of opponents and the quality of mates. Evidence for the acquisition of PI from behavioral decisions of others comes mostly from studies of copying behavior, although recent work suggests that it also occurs when individuals estimate the tendency of others to be altruistic. PI use appears to be widespread across many taxa, although most work has been conducted on birds and fish. Absent from the literature are clear examples of PI use in mammals. The use of PI appears to often depend on its cost of acquisition and whether it contradicts an individual’s personal prior experience. PI can be an important benefit of associating with others.     

USING A CHOICE MODELLING APPROACH FOR CUSTOMER SERVICE STANDARDS IN URBAN WATER1

ABSTRACT: A series of reforms in the water industry in Australia has created a demand from the industry and regulators for objective methodologies to evaluate incremental changes in the customer service standards. In this paper, the use of choice modeling for estimating implicit prices associated with urban water supply attributes is explored. Results from multinomial logit (MNL) and random parameters logit (RPL) models show that increases in annual water bills and the frequency of future interruptions were the most important attributes. Implicit price confidence intervals based on the best models suggest that people are willing to pay positive amounts to achieve a water supply that is less frequently interrupted. The provision of alternative water supplies during an interruption and notification of the interruption were found to be unimportant to respondents. Choice modeling proved to be a useful technique and provided the industry and regulators with additional information for standard setting.     

Do female bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) mate multiply to improve on previous mates?

Contrary to classical sexual selection theories, females of many taxa mate with multiple males during one reproductive cycle. In this study, we conducted an experiment on the “trade-up hypothesis”, which proposes that females remate if a subsequently encountered male is potentially superior to previous mates to maximize the genetic quality of their offspring. We presented bank vole females (Clethrionomys glareolus) sequentially with two males of known dominance rank in different orders, i.e., either first subordinate and second dominant, first dominant and second subordinate, or two males that were equal in dominance (high ranking) and observed their mating behavior. We found that 92% of the females mated multiply and did not base their remating decision on male social status. Therefore, polyandry cannot be explained by the “trade-up hypothesis” based on dominance rank in this species. However, we found that dominant males sired significantly more offspring than subordinate males. This varied according to mating order: dominant males sired more offspring when they were second than when they were first. Moreover, litter sizes were significantly smaller when the dominant male was first (smallest relative success of dominant males) compared to litter sizes when mating order was reversed or both males equal in status. Our results suggest that even though multimale mating includes males that are of poorer quality and thus potentially decreases the fitness of offspring, most of a female’s offspring are sired by dominant males. Whether this is due to cryptic female choice, sperm competition, or a combination of both, remains to be tested.     

The effects of age and relatedness on mating patterns in thornbug treehoppers: inbreeding avoidance or inbreeding tolerance?

The social environment of many species includes synchronous maturation of siblings in family groups, followed by limited dispersal of adults from their natal site. Under these conditions, females may experience high encounter rates with same-age siblings during mate searching, increasing their risk of inbreeding. If inbreeding depression occurs, mating with a sibling is often considered maladaptive; however, in some contexts, the inclusive fitness benefits of inbreeding may outweigh the costs, favoring females that tolerate some level of inbreeding depression. We evaluated mating patterns in the treehopper Umbonia crassicornis, a semelparous species in which females encounter same-age siblings during mate searching. A female U. crassicornis that mates with a brother suffers from inbreeding depression. We used a free-choice mating design that offered females simultaneous mating opportunities with three groups of males: siblings, same-age nonsiblings, and older nonsiblings. These groups represent the types of males typically encountered by females during mate searching. Our goal was to assess whether mating patterns were influenced by inbreeding avoidance by evaluating two hypotheses: kin discrimination and age-based mating (older males cannot be siblings in this species). There was no difference in the proportions of females mating with siblings vs nonsiblings, suggesting an absence of kin discrimination. However, females mated with a greater proportion of older vs younger males. Given that females do not avoid siblings as mates despite a cost to inbreeding, our results provide a possible example of inbreeding tolerance. We also discuss some factors that may have contributed to the mating advantage of older males.     

湖泊型旅游地社区参与的去权过程及启示——以安徽省太平湖为例

增权是社区参与旅游研究的重要领域。增权对应的概念是去权,对社区去权的研究能够为增权探索提供扎实的理论基础和路径借鉴。运用文献分析、深度访谈和田野调查等方法,以安徽省太平湖为例,借助社区增权分析框架,探索湖泊型旅游地社区参与的去权过程。研究发现：（1）太平湖渔民群体在政治、经济、心理和社会四个维度上都显现出权利被削弱甚至处于无权的状态。（2）经济利益分配不公是社区居民“权能感”丧失最直接的因素,为改变利益主体之间的权力关系,对政治权益的要求常成为经济诉求的辅助手段;经济、政治和社会三方面去权共同导致了社区心理无权感。（3）太平湖社区参与的去权呈现了螺旋下降的过程。（4）相对区位条件、参与旅游程度、个人能力等因素导致对“权能感”感知明显不同,社区内部出现分化。最后,从制度、政府和社区层面探讨了湖泊型旅游地社区去权的根源。     

Female sensory bias may allow honest chemical signaling by male Iberian rock lizards

Some mate choice theories propose that only male signals that are honest and condition-dependent can be stable, while another hypothesis states that males evolve signals that exploit the sensory system of females. However, sensory traps might evolve into honest signals if they are differentially costly for males. We tested whether a pre-existing sensory bias for food chemicals explained chemosensory preferences of female Iberian rock lizards for male scents. We manipulated hunger levels of females and found that food-deprived females had increased chemosensory responses to chemical stimuli from both invertebrate prey and femoral secretions of males, but not to control water. Further tests suggested that cholesta-5,7-dien-3-ol (provitamin D₃), a lipid found in both prey and males’ scent, may be one of the chemicals eliciting these responses. Moreover, hungry females spent more time on scent marks of males that had experimentally increased cholesta-5,7-dien-3-ol than on scent marks of males alone, whereas for control females this effect was not significant. We suggest that preexisting sensory bias for essential nutrients (i.e., provitamin D) may be the origin of similar female responses to male chemicals. However, previous studies have suggested that the allocation of these chemicals to ornaments is costly and only high quality males can afford it. Therefore, preexisting sensory bias for essential nutrients may further allow the evolution and maintenance of honest sexual displays.