以学生为中心的外语教学中教师的新角色

以学生为中心的外语教学模式不再是以老师为中心开展教学活动.学习者的地位有所改变,然而与此同时,教师也被赋予了一个新的角色.本文引用语言学的理论对教师在这一全新的外语教学模式中的新角色作了阐述,探讨要适应这一角色所应具备的素质.     

Science as a “fixed point”? Quantification and boundary objects in international climate politics

Our understanding of climate change is dominated by quantified scientific knowledge, with science and politics usually seen as operating separately and autonomously from one another. By investigating a particular fact box in the IPCC’s Fourth Assessment Report (AR4), this paper challenges the assumption that science and policy can be clearly delineated. The so-called “Bali Box” gained a prominent role in negotiations leading up to the Copenhagen Conference in 2009, as it was widely seen as providing a “fixed point” – a quantified scientific answer to the question of equitable effort-sharing between North and South. This understanding of the Bali Box triggered a backlash, however, when the hybrid character of the box as an assemblage of science, political considerations and moral judgements became evident to actors in the negotiations. The paper employs the notion of boundary objects to analyse the history of the Bali Box, and argues that climate politics will benefit from a richer understanding of the interplay between science and policy. Moving beyond characterizations that place the Bali Box on either side of a clear boundary between the scientific and the political, we suggest focusing instead on what the Box as a hybrid product is doing, i.e. how it simplifies and quantifies, what it covers and what it leaves outside.     

A characterization of sustainability with indicators

Economists favor the use of criteria to characterize sustainability. In practice, policy-makers use indicators, i.e., measurements based on the current economic state and decisions, representing given sustainability issues. In this paper, I introduce a criterion characterizing sustainability with indicators and thresholds acting as constraints. I interpret the thresholds as minimal rights to be guaranteed to all generations, and define sustainable trajectories as those satisfying all the constraints at all times. The new criterion is a “generalized” maximin criterion. The approach is applied to a simple production-consumption economy with non-renewable resources. To derive some policy recommendations on the use of indicators to deal with sustainability, I discuss the implications of such a criterion in terms of trade-off between sustainability thresholds, efficiency, and time-consistency. In particular, the resulting problem is time-inconsistent, and sustainability thresholds may be revised over time. Following the time-inconsistent policy based on indicators, with dynamic revision of the thresholds, may, however, result in a sustained utility path, and even in utility growth.     

Inclusively walkable: exploring the equity of walkable housing in the San Francisco Bay Area

This study evaluates the inclusiveness of walkable housing in the San Francisco Bay Area. Using a series of regression models that control for an array of factors, this study finds that blacks are more likely to live in less walkable areas, a factor which could result in increased societal costs. These models suggest that this factor may mask other highly collinear factors including income, education, and social networks. This phenomenon is explored with qualitative interviews that reinforce this finding and illustrate the many push and pull factors that influence housing choice. These findings are then used to develop potential hypotheses as to why minorities may be living in less walkable locations and to propose policy solutions that could be used to encourage more inclusive walkable housing.     

Markets and the crowding out of conservation-relevant behavior

Markets are increasingly being incorporated into many aspects of daily life and are becoming an important part of the conservation solution space. Although market-based solutions to environmental problems can result in improvements to conservation, a body of social science research highlights how markets may also have unforeseen consequences by crowding out or displacing 3 key types of behaviors potentially relevant to conservation, including people's willingness to engage in collective action and civic duty; tolerance for inflicting harm on others (third-party externalities); and desire for equity. Better understanding of the contexts and mechanisms through which this crowding out occurs and whether specific market-based instruments are more prone to different types of crowding out will be crucial to developing novel conservation initiatives that can reduce or prevent crowding out.     

The futility of rights‐based humanitarian aid to the Occupied Palestinian Territories

A rights‐based approach (RBA) to humanitarian aid is intrinsic to Norwegian policy and should inform Norwegian aid to the Occupied Palestinian Territories, one of the main receivers of Norwegian aid. However, this is the case only to a limited extent. While Norwegian humanitarian non‐governmental organisations (NGOs) take RBA seriously, and design their projects in accordance with its principles, they are unable to pursue a programme of long‐term structural change. This is because the main duty‐bearer, Israel, is indifferent or hostile to their work, while Norway's foreign policy is given higher priority than following through a rights‐based agenda. The result of this situation is a large, long‐standing aid effort that is unable to provide more than temporary relief in a steadily deteriorating situation. The Palestinian case suggests that RBA in humanitarianism may lead to frustration rather than human liberation when not backed up by political power.     

Environmental justice: A louisiana case study

The paper begins with a brief analysis of the concepts of environmental justice and environmental racism and classism. The authors argue that pollution- and environment-related decision-making is prima facie wrong whenever it results in inequitable treatment of individuals on the basis of race or socio-economic status. The essay next surveys the history of the doctrine of free informed consent and argues that the consent of those affected is necessary for ensuring the fairness of decision-making for siting hazardous facilities. The paper also points out that equal opportunity to environmental protection and free informed consent are important rights. Finally, it presents a case study on the proposed uranium enrichment facility near Homer, Louisiana and argues that siting the plant would violate norms of distributive equity and free informed consent. It concludes that siting the facility is a case of environmental injustice and likely an example of environmental racism or classism.     

THE ROLE OF USER FEES AND CONGESTION TOLLS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF INLAND WATERWAYS1

ABSTRACT In this paper, we discuss how user fees and congestion tolls can be used to improve the efficiency and equity with which the inland waterway system is managed. The advantages and disadvantages of various types of user fees (fuel taxes, segment tolls, and license fees) are presented. The rationale for the employment of congestion tolls on congested waterways is discussed. A segment toll that is equated to average variable cost is recommended for uncongested existing waterwyas. When existing waterways are congested, congestion tolls, in addition to the segment tolls, are recommended, A two-part tariff, consisting of segment tolls and an annual license fee, is recommended for “new” uncongested waterways. A three-part tariff, consisting of the first two parts plus congestion tolls, is recommended for “new” congested waterways.     

NON-EFFICIENCY OBJECTIVES AND DECISION-MAKING IN WATER RESOURCE DEVELOPMENTS1

ABSTRACT: In spite of the rather large volume of literature suggesting that non-efficiency objectives ought to be incorporated into water resource planning frameworks, little has been done to date. A partial explanation is that when goals are in conflict we have no “objective” criteria upon which to make the trade-offs. Also, there are problems of measuring the degree to which various policy actions lead to achievement of various goals. Nevertheless, this paper argues that given the magnitude of the possible gains from incorporating these considerations, considerable effort to overcome these problems is justified. Accordingly, we outline some procedures for making these trade-offs and suggest an alternative (practical) planning framework.     

DISTRIBUTIONAL IMPACTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT: FEDERAL GRANTS FOR WATER POLLUTION CONTROL1

ABSTRACT: The income redistribution effects of waste water treatment grants are estimated for each state participating in five federal programs. Both gross and net effects per state and per capita are discussed. The impact of the tax structure used to finance such grants and the grant formulae are investigated.