ABSTRACT: The consumptive loss from man-made snowmaking at six Colorado ski areas is calculated. The focus of the procedures in this investigation is on the consumptive loss that occurs to man-made snow particles during the period they reside on or in the snowpack until spring snowmelt (termed the watershed loss). Calculated watershed losses under a variety of precipitation and temperature conditions at six ski areas varied from 7 to 33 percent. These calculations were made using the calibrated Subalpine Water Balance Simulation Model (Leaf and Brink, 1973a, 1973b). The watershed loss of 7 to 33 percent indicates the range of likely watershed losses that can be expected at Colorado ski areas. A previous paper by the authors (Eisel et al., 1988) provided estimates of the mean consumptive loss during the snowmaking process (termed initial loss) for conditions existing at Colorado ski areas to be 6 percent of water applied. Therefore, based on the mean initial loss, the total consumptive loss from man-made snowmaking under conditions found at Colorado ski areas could be expected to range from 13 to 37 percent. These results demonstrate the range of total consumptive losses that could be expected in various years and for various watershed conditions. These total percentage losses cannot be extrapolated directly to other specific sites because the total consumptive loss is dependent on temperature during actual snowmaking, temperature and precipitation throughout the winter at the specific ski area, and watershed conditions at the ski area. Consumptive losses to man-made snow for a specific ski area should be estimated using the handbook procedures developed especially for this purpose (Colorado Ski Country USA, 1986b). 相似文献
The boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion (BLEVE) has existed for a long time and for most of this time it has been cloaked in mystery. Several theories have been put forward to explain this very energetic event but none have been proven. This paper describes a series of tests that have recently been conducted to study this phenomenon.
The study involved ASME code automotive propane tanks with nominal capacities of 400 litres. The tanks were exposed to a combination of pool and/or torch fires. These fire conditions led to thermal ruptures, and in some cases these ruptures resulted in BLEVEs. The variables in the tests were the pressure-relief valve setting, the tank wall thickness, and the fire condition.
In total, 30 tests have been conducted, of which 22 resulted in thermal ruptures. Of those tanks that ruptured, 11 resulted in what we call BLEVEs. In this paper, we have defined a BLEVE as the explosive release of expanding vapour and boiling liquid following a catastrophic tank failure. Non-BLEVEs involved tanks that ruptured but which only resulted in a prolonged jet release.
The objective of this study was to investigate why certain tank ruptures lead to a BLEVE rather than a more benign jet-type release. Data are presented to show how wall temperature, wall thickness, liquid temperature and fill level contribute to the BLEVE process. 相似文献
Habitat change in coastal Louisiana from 1955/6 to 1978 was analyzed to determine the influence of geological and man-made changes on landscape patterns within 7.5 min quadrangle maps. Three quantitative analyses were used: principal components anlaysis, multiple regression analysis, and cluster analysis.Regional differences in land loss rates reflect variations in geology and the deltaic growth/decay cycles, man-induced chages in hydrology (principally canal dredging and spoil banking), and land-use changes (principally urbanization and agricultural expansion). The coastal zone is not homogeneous with respect to these variables and the interaction between causal factors leading to wetland loss is therefore locally variable and complex.The relationship between wetland loss, hydrologic changes, and geology can be described with statistically meaningful results, even though these data are insufficient to precisely quantify the relationship. However, these data support the hypothesis that the indirect impacts of man-induced changes (hydrologic and land use) may be as influential as the direct impacts resulting in converting wetlands to open water (canals) or modified (impounded) habitat.Three regions within the Louisiana coastal zone can be defined, based on the potential causal factors used in the analyses. The moderate (mean = 22%) wetland loss rates in region 1 are a result of relatively high canal density and developed area in marshes which overlie sediments of moderate age and depth; local geology acts, in this case, to lessen indirect impacts. On the other hand, wetland loss rates in region 2 are high (mean = 36%), despite fewer man-induced impacts; the potential for increased wetland loss due to both direct and indirect effects of man's activity in these areas is high. Conversely, wetland loss (mean = 20%) in region 3 is apparently least influenced by man's activity in the coastal zone because of sedimentary geology (old, thin sediments), even though these areas have already experienced significant direct habitat alteration and wetland loss. 相似文献
ABSTRACT: Heat pulse velocity techniques were developed for effective monitoring of water movement in aspen (Populus tremuloides), subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), and Englemann spruce (Picea engelmannif). Water loss was monitored in replicated trees of each species for one year. These data were used to modify the plant activity index (a reflection of the ability of plants to transpire water at various times during a year) and the crop coefficient (a reflection of differences in consumptive use rates of water by different vegetation types when all other factors are held constant) for each species within the model ASPCON, a deterministic, lumped-parameter model describing the hydrology of aspen to conifer succession. Results of the modeling in dicate 18.6 cm net loss of moisture available for streamflow when spruce replaced aspen, and a loss of 7.2 cm when fir forests replaced aspen. The aspen to conifer successional trend appears, therefore, to be significantly reducing water yields in the western United States. 相似文献
An economic analysis of nonpoint source pollution management was conducted for the Nansemond River and Chuckatuck Creek watersheds in Southeast Virginia. The potential effects of alternative public policies on farm income, land use, and pollution loadings were investigated. Regulatory programs could have quite different impacts depending on which pollutant is targeted. Cost-share rates greater than 50 percent would have little additional effect on pollution from crop enterprises, but would reduce pollution from livestock 相似文献
First-generation compensation plans (CPs) for Dutch highway projects have been evaluated with respect to implementation of
the compensation principle (1993), which aims to counterbalance the adverse ecological impacts of large-scale development
projects. Decision-making on the seven projects took place between 1993 and 1995. Specifically, we considered: (a) the processes
employed to prepare and implement the compensation plans; (b) the methods used to identify, plan, and execute the compensation
measures; and (c) the results yielded by these methods. We conclude that the CPs were prepared fairly uniformly, particularly
in terms of the processes and methodologies used to derive compensation measures. Five of the seven CPs had become operational
by 2001 and initial experience is now being gained on land acquisition and transfer of compensation sites to nature conservation
trusts. Further progress of CPs is likely to be seriously hampered by growing demand for land for development in general and
associated increases in real estate prices. Several problems are addressed and recommendations made with respect to: (a) developing
a legal basis for the compensation principle; (b) the relationship with re-allotment projects; (c) estimation of compensation
costs; (d) an annual bias of CP budgets to account for rising costs; (e) contingency measures; and (f) criteria for CP (ex-post)
evaluation. 相似文献
ABSTRACT: Extension of basic step methods of backwater computation to reaches of finite length is examined. Accuracies of commonly accepted hydraulic loss equations under particular water surface profile conditions are compared. Simulation of energy lines within a reach by parabolic curves is found to minimize error provided orientation of the axis of the parabola is selected in accordance with prevailing hydraulic conditions. Theoretical basis for an index reach length beyond which single-step computation from end to end of the reach must be in error is developed. Reduction of this reach length by suitable factors tailored to hydraulic conditions yields a mathematically defined allowable reach length for backwater computation. When reach length does not exceed this allowable reach length, no significant error may be detected. Automatic insertion of synthetic cross sections interpolated between surveyed cross sections when these are inadvertently spaced too far apart enables computation to proceed. This device is error-free for prismatic channls but may introduce error for irregular natural channels. Preliminary trials indicate that results so obtained may be accepted provided the fall in the original reach does not exceed from one to two feet. When this is exceeded, additional cross sections should be surveyed. 相似文献