Critical habitat designation for Canadian listed species: Slow,biased, and incomplete

Although endangered species legislation can be a powerful tool for protecting species, such laws are only as good as their implementation. Under the Canadian Species at Risk Act, Critical Habitat is designated in a Recovery Strategy as the habitat required for the recovery or survival of a listed species. We examined the finalized Recovery Strategies for 234 species and we found poor implementation of Critical Habitat designation for Canadian species. Most listed species (62.9%) lack Critical Habitat; only 11.8% have full Critical Habitat. Many species with Critical habitat obtained it years later than the statutory requirements. Designation is biased taxonomically, by major habitat type, and by lead agency. These results echo findings from the US Endangered Species Act, despite differences between the laws in when designation is supposed to occur. Additional funding and expertise would likely help reduce these delays. We also strongly encourage designation even in the face of incomplete information because of the significant negative consequences that can result from failure to protect the habitat of species at risk of extinction.     

Effects of Forest Fragmentation and Habitat Degradation on West African Leaf-Litter Frogs

Abstract:  Habitat degradation alters the dynamics and composition of anuran assemblages in tropical forests. The effects of forest fragmentation on the composition of anuran assemblages are so far poorly known. We studied the joint influence of forest fragmentation and degradation on leaf-litter frogs. We specifically asked whether the processes structuring leaf-litter anuran assemblages in fragmented forests are the same as those in continuous forests. We analyzed anuran assemblages with respect to habitat characteristics, including fragmentation and degradation parameters. In comparison with continuous forests, species richness and diversity were lower and assemblage composition was altered in forest fragments. These changes seemed to be mainly caused by habitat degradation rather than forest fragmentation. Availability of aquatic sites for breeding, vegetation structure (including those variables indicating degradation), and leaf-litter cover had the most influence on the presence of single species. The comparatively small impact of fragmentation on anurans might be due to the location of the study area; it still possessed large tracts of continuous forest. These forest blocks may stabilize the regional rainforest climate and thus weaken the effects of fragmentation .     

Predicting Risk of Habitat Conversion in Native Temperate Grasslands

Abstract: Native grasslands that support diverse populations of birds are being converted to cropland at an increasing rate in the Prairie Pothole Region of North America. Although limited funding is currently available to mitigate losses, accurate predictions of probability of conversion would increase the efficiency of conservation measures. We studied conversion of native grassland to cropland in the Missouri Coteau region of North and South Dakota (U.S.A.) during 1989–2003. We estimated the probability of conversion of native grassland to cropland with satellite imagery and logistic regression models that predicted risk of conversion and by comparing the overlap between areas of high biological value and areas most vulnerable to conversion. Annualized probability of conversion was 0.004, and 36,540 ha of native grassland were converted to cropland during the period of our study. Our predictive models fit the data and correctly predicted 70% of observed conversions of grassland. Probability of conversion varied spatially and was correlated with landscape features like amount of surrounding grassland, slope, and soil productivity. Tracts of high biological value were not always at high risk of conversion. We concluded the most biologically valuable areas that are most vulnerable to conversion should be prioritized for conservation. This approach can be applied broadly to other systems and offers great utility for implementing conservation in areas with spatially variable biological value and probability of conversion.     

TIMBER HARVEST IMPACTS ON SMALL HEADWATER STREAM CHANNELS IN THE COAST RANGES OF WASHINGTON1

ABSTRACT: We evaluated changes in channel habitat distributions, particle‐size distributions of bed material, and stream temperatures in a total of 15 first‐or second‐order streams within and nearby four planned commercial timber harvest units prior to and following timber harvest. Four of the 15 stream basins were not harvested, and these streams served as references. Three streams were cut with unthinned riparian buffers; one was cut with a partial buffer; one was cut with a buffer of non‐merchantable trees; and the remaining six basins were clearcut to the channel edge. In the clearcut streams, logging debris covered or buried 98 percent of the channel length to an average depth of 0.94 meters. The slash trapped fine sediment in the channel by inhibiting fluvial transport, and the average percentage of fines increased from 12 percent to 44 percent. The trees along buffered streams served as a fence to keep out logging debris during the first summer following timber harvest. Particle size distributions and habitat distributions in the buffered and reference streams were largely unchanged from the pre‐harvest to post‐harvest surveys. The debris that buried the clearcut streams effectively shaded most of these streams and protected them from temperature increases. These surveys have documented immediate channel changes due to timber harvest, but channel conditions will evolve over time as the slash decays and becomes redistributed and as new vegetation develops on the channel margins.     

Use of data on avian demographics and site persistence during overwintering to assess quality of restored riparian habitat

Monitoring responses by birds to restoration of riparian vegetation is relatively cost-effective, but in most assessments species-specific abundances, not demography, are monitored. Data on birds collected during the nonbreeding season are particularly lacking. We captured birds in mist nets and resighted banded birds to estimate species richness and diversity, abundance, demographic indexes, and site-level persistence of permanent-resident and overwintering migrants in remnant and restored riparian sites in California. Species richness in riparian remnants was significantly higher than in restored sites because abundances of uncommon permanent residents were greater in remnants. Species richness of overwintering migrants did not differ between remnants and restored sites. Responses among overwintering migrants (but not permanent residents) to remnant and restored riparian sites differed. Capture rates were higher in remnant or restored riparian sites for 7 of 10 overwintering migratory species. For Lincoln's Sparrows (Melospiza lincolnii) and White-crowned Sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys) proportions of older birds were significantly higher in remnants, even though capture rates of these species were higher in restored sites. Overwinter persistence of 4 migrant species was significantly higher in remnant than in restored sites. A higher proportion of Hermit Thrushes (Catharus guttatus, 56.3%), older Fox Sparrows (Passerella iliaca, 57.1%), Lincoln's Sparrows (59.7%), and White-crowned Sparrows (67.8%) persisted in remnants than restored sites. Our results suggest restored riparian sites provide habitat for a wide variety of species in comparable abundances and diversity as occurs in remnant riparian sites. Our demographic and persistence data showed that remnants supported some species and age classes to a greater extent than restored sites.     

ANADROMOUS SALMONID RECOVERY IN THE UMATILLA RWER BASIN,OREGON: A CASE STUDY1

ABSTRACT: The Umatilla River Basin Fisheries Restoration Plan was initiated in the early 1980s to mitigate salmonid losses caused by hydroelectric development and habitat degradation. The objectives are to enhance the abundance of endemic steelhead and reintroduce extirpated chinook and coho salmon. The project prompted collaborative effort among federal, state, and tribal agencies, and local water users. It has incorporated habitat restoration, flow enhancement, fish passage improvements, and population supplementation through artificial production. Water exchanges have successfully increased minimum flows during spring and fall migration. While flows remain depressed compared to historic conditions, there is potential for improved habitat, passage, and homing. The mean adult‐to‐adult return rate of hatchery‐reared steelhead exceeded replacement and that of the naturally‐spawning population. Although the smolt‐to‐adult survival rates of hatchery‐reared fish fluctuate, salmonid escapement has increased in recent years, permitting steelhead and spring chinook harvest. Enumeration of potential spawners and observed redds reveals an increase in natural production of all supplemented species. Comparison of hatchery‐reared and naturally‐spawning steelhead populations revealed differences in life history characteristics (in age composition and sex ratios) though run timing and genetic stock compositions of the two components of the populations have not differed. Sustained monitoring is needed to determine benefits of integrating habitat restoration and artificial production in restoring salmonid populations.     

Spatial optimization of protected area placement incorporating ecological, social and economical criteria

We describe two approaches for spatial optimization of protected area placement, both based on maximizing an objective function that incorporates ecological, social, and economical criteria. Of these, a seed cell selection procedure works by evaluating potential cells for protection one by one, picking the one that maximizes the objective function, adding seed cells. This continues to full protection of the project area. The other is a Monte Carlo approach, which uses a likelihood sampling procedure based on weighted importance layers of conservation interest to evaluate alternative protected area sizing and placement. This is similar to the objective function of Marxan, a priority-selection decision-support tool based on optimization algorithms using geographic information system data. The two approaches are alternative options in a common spatial optimization module, which uses the time- and spatial-dynamic Ecospace model for the evaluations. The optimizations are implemented as components of the Ecopath with Ecosim approach and software. In a case study, we find that there can be protected area zoning that will accommodate economical and social factors, without causing ecological deterioration. We also find a tradeoff between including cells of special conservation interest, and the economic and social interests. While this does not need to be a general feature, it emphasizes the need to use modeling techniques to evaluate the tradeoff.     

Predicting the Deleterious Effects of Mutation Load in Fragmented Populations

Abstract:  Human-induced habitat fragmentation constitutes a major threat to biodiversity. Both genetic and demographic factors combine to drive small and isolated populations into extinction vortices. Nevertheless, the deleterious effects of inbreeding and drift load may depend on population structure, migration patterns, and mating systems and are difficult to predict in the absence of crossing experiments. We performed stochastic individual-based simulations aimed at predicting the effects of deleterious mutations on population fitness (offspring viability and median time to extinction) under a variety of settings (landscape configurations, migration models, and mating systems) on the basis of easy-to-collect demographic and genetic information. Pooling all simulations, a large part (70%) of variance in offspring viability was explained by a combination of genetic structure ( F_ST ) and within-deme heterozygosity ( H_S ). A similar part of variance in median time to extinction was explained by a combination of local population size ( N ) and heterozygosity ( H_S ). In both cases the predictive power increased above 80% when information on mating systems was available. These results provide robust predictive models to evaluate the viability prospects of fragmented populations.     

广东连州田心自然保护区香果树种群及其生境特征

香果树是中国特有的茜草科的单种属植物,1993年被列入国家重点保护植物名录（Ⅱ级）。论文首次报道了广东境内的香果树Emmenopterys henryi最大种群及其群落的基本情况,以期为深入了解该保护植物的生态适应性、种群的生存和发展提供基础资料。2013年采用美国Onset公司产HOBO-U23-002温度-湿度记录仪对广东连州田心梅树冲的香果树种群所处生境进行了为期1年的监测;测定了土壤的理化特性、叶面和旷地的光照强度、香果树群落的物种组成、香果树种群的基径径级结构与高度结构,以及叶片的某些生理生态特性。结果表明,连州田心梅树冲是香果树的适宜生长地,生境的年均气温17.315℃,年均大气相对湿度84.316%;土壤pH5.64,有机质含量1.95%（大于林外旷地的0.50%）;叶面光照强度小于旷地的12%。香果树叶片SPAD值约为40,净光合速率为2.16-12.92μmol·m-2·s-1（以CO2计）,蒸腾速率0.29-0.62 mmol·m-2·s-1（以H2O计）。群落中有维管植物33种,其中乔木层17种,以壳斗科的4种为最多,樟科3种次之;除香果树外,群落优势种为灯台树Bothrocaryum controversum、西川朴Celtis vandervoetiana、野黄桂Cinnamomum jensenianum和金叶含笑Michelia foveolata等。连州田心梅树冲的香果树种群共有97个个体,其中Ⅰ级幼苗11株（占11.34%）,Ⅱ级幼苗76株（占78.35%）,小树9株（占9.28%）,中树0株,大树1株（1.03%）;高度为0.20-2.03 m的个体数77株,占总数的79.38%。径级结构和高度结构均表明,种群目前虽暂时处于增长阶段,但因受2008年南岭地区的冰灾影响,能产生果实的大树严重受损,缺失中树阶段的个体,且Ⅰ级幼苗数量少于Ⅱ级幼苗,该种群将在一定时期后因无法更新而进入衰退阶段,为此应加强香果树的就地和迁地保护、科学研究和宣传教育。     

栖息地适宜度评价方法研究进展

栖息地模拟法是根据指示物种所需的物理生境条件确定河流流量,评价栖息地适宜度,为水生生物提供一个适宜的物理生境。与其他方法相比,栖息地模拟法考虑了生物本身对物理生境的要求,需要建立物种-生境评价指标。文章总结了目前用于描述物种—生境关系的栖息地适宜度评价方法,包括栖息地适宜度指数、多元统计方法、模糊逻辑方法、人工神经网络、对多物种和群落的统计分析,归纳了各个方法的进展和应用情况,重点分析了统计学方法在评估栖息地适宜度时的优势和不足。栖息地适宜度指数有二元、单变量、多变量3种格式,前2种方法只考虑单一因子,实际应用中多变量格式应用较多。多变量格式方法直观、所需数据容易获取、实际操作性强,是栖息地定量化的经典方法,也是目前应用最多的方法,然而其对专家经验依赖较多,主观性较强。近些年来,多元统计方法在栖息地适宜度评价方面的应用不断增加,它考虑物理变量之间的相互作用和相关性。模糊逻辑法在处理栖息地模拟中的不确定性方面具有优势,能更好地利用专家知识,更合理的处理建模过程中测量的不准确性和不确定性,同时也考虑了多个变量之间的相互作用,但是当考虑的变量数增加时,模糊规则的数量会迅速增加,给计算带来不便。人工神经网络能够隐性地找出响应变量和环境变量之间的复杂关系,但是其解释能力不足,并需要大量的实测数据对其进行训练,实际应用受到限制。通过排序分析或梯度分析可以对多物种和群落进行统计分析。这些方法都各有优劣,在实际应用中,应结合实际情况选择最合适的栖息地适宜度评价方法。