The Capacity of Australia's Protected‐Area System to Represent Threatened Species

Abstract: The acquisition or designation of new protected areas is usually based on criteria for representation of different ecosystems or land‐cover classes, and it is unclear how well‐threatened species are conserved within protected‐area networks. Here, we assessed how Australia's terrestrial protected‐area system (89 million ha, 11.6% of the continent) overlaps with the geographic distributions of threatened species and compared this overlap against a model that randomly placed protected areas across the continent and a spatially efficient model that placed protected areas across the continent to maximize threatened species’ representation within the protected‐area estate. We defined the minimum area needed to conserve each species on the basis of the species’ range size. We found that although the current configuration of protected areas met targets for representation of a given percentage of species’ ranges better than a random selection of areas, 166 (12.6%) threatened species occurred entirely outside protected areas and target levels of protection were met for only 259 (19.6%) species. Critically endangered species were among those with the least protection; 12 (21.1%) species occurred entirely outside protected areas. Reptiles and plants were the most poorly represented taxonomic groups, and amphibians the best represented. Spatial prioritization analyses revealed that an efficient protected‐area system of the same size as the current protected‐area system (11.6% of the area of Australia) could meet representation targets for 1272 (93.3%) threatened species. Moreover, the results of these prioritization analyses showed that by protecting 17.8% of Australia, all threatened species could reach target levels of representation, assuming all current protected areas are retained. Although this amount of area theoretically could be protected, existing land uses and the finite resources available for conservation mean land acquisition may not be possible or even effective for the recovery of threatened species. The optimal use of resources must balance acquisition of new protected areas, where processes that threaten native species are mitigated by the change in ownership or on‐ground management jurisdiction, and management of threatened species inside and outside the existing protected‐area system.     

Local Extinction of Dragonfly and Damselfly Populations in Low‐ and High‐Quality Habitat Patches

Abstract: Understanding the risk of extinction of a single population is an important problem in both theoretical and applied ecology. Local extinction risk depends on several factors, including population size, demographic or environmental stochasticity, natural catastrophe, or the loss of genetic diversity. The probability of local extinction may also be higher in low‐quality sink habitats than in high‐quality source habitats. We tested this hypothesis by comparing local extinction rates of 15 species of Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) between 1930–1975 and 1995–2003 in central Finland. Local extinction rates were higher in low‐quality than in high‐quality habitats. Nevertheless, for the three most common species there were no differences in extinction rates between low‐ and high‐quality habitats. Our results suggest that a good understanding of habitat quality is crucial for the conservation of species in heterogeneous landscapes.     

Isolation and characterisation of a carbofuran degrading Burkholderia sp. PCL3 from carbofuran-phytoremediated rhizosphere soil

A bacterial strain capable of degrading carbofuran as the sole carbon source was isolated from carbofuran-phytoremediated rhizosphere soil of rice. A 16S rRNA study identified the strain as Burkholderia sp. (isolate PCL3). Free cells of isolate PCL3 possessed inhibitory-type degradation kinetics with a q _max of 0.087 day^?1 and S _m of 248.76 mg·L^?1. Immobilised PCL3 on corncob and sugarcane bagasse possessed Monod-type degradation kinetics with a q _max of 0.124 and 0.098 day^?1, respectively. The optimal pH and temperature with the highest degradation rate coefficient of carbofuran were pH 7.5 and 35 °C, respectively.     

Quantifying Purported Competition with Individual‐ and Population‐Level Metrics

Abstract: Competitive species interactions may contribute to population declines. Purportedly, Red‐bellied Woodpeckers (Melanerpes carolinus), a common species, and Red‐cockaded Woodpeckers (Picoides borealis), an endangered species, compete for roosting and nesting cavities in living pine trees. To determine whether behavioral interactions measured at the individual level manifest themselves at the population level, we conducted field experiments designed to test whether the presence of Red‐bellied Woodpeckers resulted in a decrease in fitness to Red‐cockaded Woodpeckers. As part of a 4‐year study examining the nature of interspecific interactions in two populations of Red‐cockaded Woodpeckers (one stable, the Apalachicola Ranger District; one declining, the Wakulla Ranger District) in the Apalachicola National Forest, Florida, we conducted a set of Red‐bellied Woodpecker removal experiments. Paradoxically, following the removal of Red‐bellied Woodpeckers, we observed decreases in Red‐cockaded Woodpecker group size, proportion of nests that were successful, and proportion of individuals remaining on territories. Removal of Red‐bellied Woodpeckers may have exaggerated the immigration rate of Red‐bellied Woodpeckers to Red‐cockaded Woodpecker territories. The Red‐cockaded Woodpeckers in the Apalachicola Ranger District likely can withstand pressure from immigrating Red‐bellied Woodpeckers given that their population has remained relatively stable despite the presence of Red‐bellied Woodpeckers. A major factor of population persistence in the Wakulla Ranger District was the high turnover rate of adult female Red‐cockaded Woodpeckers, a phenomenon that was exacerbated by removal of Red‐bellied Woodpeckers. Relying solely on observations of apparently competitive interactions between individuals may not necessarily provide information about population‐level outcomes. Paradoxically, removing species that appear to be competitors may harm species of concern.     

A Multispecies Framework for Landscape Conservation Planning

Abstract: Rapidly changing landscapes have spurred the need for quantitative methods for conservation assessment and planning that encompass large spatial extents. We devised and tested a multispecies framework for conservation planning to complement single‐species assessments and ecosystem‐level approaches. Our framework consisted of 4 elements: sampling to effectively estimate population parameters, measuring how human activity affects landscapes at multiple scales, analyzing the relation between landscape characteristics and individual species occurrences, and evaluating and comparing the responses of multiple species to landscape modification. We applied the approach to a community of terrestrial birds across 25,000 km² with a range of intensities of human development. Human modification of land cover, road density, and other elements of the landscape, measured at multiple spatial extents, had large effects on occupancy of the 67 species studied. Forest composition within 1 km of points had a strong effect on occupancy of many species and a range of negative, intermediate, and positive associations. Road density within 1 km of points, percent evergreen forest within 300 m, and distance from patch edge were also strongly associated with occupancy for many species. We used the occupancy results to group species into 11 guilds that shared patterns of association with landscape characteristics. Our multispecies approach to conservation planning allowed us to quantify the trade‐offs of different scenarios of land‐cover change in terms of species occupancy.     

Biogeochemistry of two types of permeable reactive barriers, organic carbon and iron-bearing organic carbon for mine drainage treatment: Column experiments

Permeable reactive barriers (PRBs) are an alternative technology to treat mine drainage containing sulfate and heavy metals. Two column experiments were conducted to assess the suitability of an organic carbon (OC) based reactive mixture and an Fe⁰-bearing organic carbon (FeOC) based reactive mixture, under controlled groundwater flow conditions. The organic carbon mixture contains about 30% (volume) organic carbon (composted leaf mulch) and 70% (volume) sand and gravel. The Fe⁰-bearing organic carbon mixture contains 10% (volume) zero-valent iron, 20% (volume) organic carbon, 10% (volume) limestone, and 60% (volume) sand and gravel. Simulated groundwater containing 380 ppm sulfate, 5 ppm As, and 0.5 ppm Sb was passed through the columns at flow rates of 64 (the OC column) and 62 (the FeOC column) ml d^− 1, which are equivalent to 0.79 (the OC column) and 0.78 (the FeOC column) pore volumes (PVs) per week or 0.046 m d^− 1 for both columns. The OC column showed an initial sulfate reduction rate of 0.4 µmol g (OC)^− 1 d^− 1 and exhausted its capacity to promote sulfate reduction after 30 PVs, or 9 months of flow. The FeOC column sustained a relatively constant sulfate reduction rate of 0.9 µmol g (OC)^− 1 d^− 1 for at least 65 PVs (17 months). In the FeOC column, the δ³⁴S values increase with the decreasing sulfate concentration. The δ³⁴S fractionation follows a Rayleigh fractionation model with an enrichment factor of 21.6‰. The performance decline of the OC column was caused by the depletion of substrate or electron donor. The cathodic production of H₂ by anaerobic corrosion of Fe probably sustained a higher level of SRB activity in the FeOC column. These results suggest that zero-valent iron can be used to provide an electron donor in sulfate reducing PRBs. A sharp increase in the δ¹³C value of the dissolved inorganic carbon and a decrease in the concentration of HCO₃⁻ indicate that hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis is occurring in the first 15 cm of the FeOC column.     

Decision Making in a Human Population Living Sustainably

Abstract: The Tiwi people of northern Australia have managed natural resources continuously for 6000–8000 years. Tiwi management objectives and outcomes may reflect how they gather information about the environment. We qualitatively analyzed Tiwi documents and management techniques to examine the relation between the social and physical environment of decision makers and their decision‐making strategies. We hypothesized that principles of bounded rationality, namely, the use of efficient rules to navigate complex decision problems, explain how Tiwi managers use simple decision strategies (i.e., heuristics) to make robust decisions. Tiwi natural resource managers reduced complexity in decision making through a process that gathers incomplete and uncertain information to quickly guide decisions toward effective outcomes. They used management feedback to validate decisions through an information loop that resulted in long‐term sustainability of environmental use. We examined the Tiwi decision‐making processes relative to management of barramundi (Lates calcarifer) fisheries and contrasted their management with the state government's management of barramundi. Decisions that enhanced the status of individual people and their attainment of aspiration levels resulted in reliable resource availability for Tiwi consumers. Different decision processes adopted by the state for management of barramundi may not secure similarly sustainable outcomes.     

Protection of Genetic Diversity and Maintenance of Connectivity among Reef Corals within Marine Protected Areas

Abstract: High‐latitude coral reefs (HLRs) are potentially vulnerable marine ecosystems facing well‐documented threats to tropical reefs and exposure to suboptimal temperatures and insolation. In addition, because of their geographic isolation, HLRs may have poor or erratic larval connections to tropical reefs and a reduced genetic diversity and capacity to respond to environmental change. On Australia's east coast, a system of marine protected areas (MPAs) has been established with the aim of conserving HLRs in part by providing sources of colonizing larvae. To examine the effectiveness of existing MPAs as networks for dispersal, we compared genetic diversity within and among the HLRs in MPAs and between these HLRs and tropical reefs on the southern Great Barrier Reef (GBR). The 2 coral species best represented on Australian HLRs (the brooding Pocillopora damicornis and the broadcast‐spawning Goniastrea australensis) exhibited sharply contrasting patterns of diversity and connectedness. For P. damicornis, the 8‐locus genetic and genotypic diversity declined dramatically with increasing latitude (N_a= 3.6–1.2, H_e= 0.3–0.03, N_g:N = 0.87–0.06), although population structure was consistent with recruitment derived largely from sexual reproduction (G_o:G_e= 1.28–0.55). Genetic differentiation was high among the HLRs (F_ST[SD]= 0.32 [0.08], p < 0.05) and between the GBR and the HLRs (F_ST= 0.24 [0.06], p < 0.05), which indicates these temperate populations are effectively closed. In contrast for G. australensis, 9‐locus genetic diversity was more consistent across reefs (N_a= 4.2–3.9, H_e= 0.3–0.26, N_g:N = 1–0.61), and there was no differentiation among regions (F_ST= 0.00 [0.004], p > 0.05), which implies the HLRs and the southern GBR are strongly interconnected. Our results demonstrate that although the current MPAs appear to capture most of the genetic diversity present within the HLR systems for these 2 species, their sharply contrasting patterns of connectivity indicate some taxa, such as P. damicornis, will be more vulnerable than others, and this disparity will provide challenges for future management.     

Macroeconomic Policy,Growth, and Biodiversity Conservation

Abstract: To successfully achieve biodiversity conservation, the amount of ecosystem structure available for economic production must be determined by, and subject to, conservation needs. As such, the scale of economic systems must remain within the limits imposed by the need to preserve critical ecosystems and the regenerative and waste assimilative capacities of the ecosphere. These limits are determined by biophysical criteria, yet macroeconomics involves the use of economic instruments designed to meet economic criteria that have no capacity to achieve biophysically based targets. Macroeconomic policy cannot, therefore, directly solve the biodiversity erosion crisis. Nevertheless, good macroeconomic policy is still important given that bad macroeconomy policy is likely to reduce human well‐being and increase the likelihood of social upheaval that could undermine conservation efforts.     

Economic Growth,Climate Change,Biodiversity Loss: Distributive Justice for the Global North and South

Abstract: Economic growth‐the increase in production and consumption of goods and services‐must be considered within its biophysical context. Economic growth is fueled by biophysical inputs and its outputs degrade ecological processes, such as the global climate system. Economic growth is currently the principal cause of increased climate change, and climate change is a primary mechanism of biodiversity loss. Therefore, economic growth is a prime catalyst of biodiversity loss. Because people desire economic growth for dissimilar reasons‐some for the increased accumulation of wealth, others for basic needs‐how we limit economic growth becomes an ethical problem. Principles of distributive justice can help construct an international climate‐change regime based on principles of equity. An equity‐based framework that caps economic growth in the most polluting economies will lessen human impact on biodiversity. When coupled with a cap‐and‐trade mechanism, the framework can also provide a powerful tool for redistribution of wealth. Such an equity‐based framework promises to be more inclusive and therefore more effective because it accounts for the disparate developmental conditions of the global north and south.