Framing community forestry challenges with a broader lens: case studies from the Brazilian Amazon

Community forestry initiatives have been shown to reduce rural poverty while promoting the conservation and sustainable use of forests. However, a number of challenges face communities wanting to initiate or maintain formal, community-based forest management. Through a grounded theory approach, this paper uses three case studies of community forest management models in the eastern Amazon to create a framework showing challenges faced by communities at different phases of formal management. The framework shows that, in the development phase, four root problems (land ownership, knowledge acquisition, community organization, and adequate capital) need to be addressed to obtain legal management permission. With this permission in hand, further challenges to operationalization are presented (deterring illegal loggers, maintaining infrastructure, obtaining necessary managerial skills and accessing markets). The interrelatedness of these challenges emphasizes that all challenges need to be addressed in a holistic manner for communities to maintain a profitable and self-sufficient operation. This contradicts current development approaches that only address part of this framework. The framework proposed here can be used as a starting point for community forestry initiatives in other regions.     

美国国家公园路百年发展历程及借鉴

国家公园路是美国国家公园的重要组成部分,道路与国家公园融为一体,是国家公园的特色和品牌形象。国家公园路不仅是国家公园的重要交通方式,其本身就是旅游吸引物和旅游目的地。对于游客来说,在国家公园路上行驶就是游览国家公园。国家公园路的发展体现了道路工程与美学、哲学、游憩、生态等多学科的融合,促进了道路从单一交通功能向游憩、景观、文化和保护等复合功能转变,突出地展示了绚丽的景观和充满想象的工程线形,也展示了在保护无价的自然和文化资源的同时如何提供多元化的游憩机会,以实现环境保护与游客公众之间的平衡。本文从相关概念、发展背景、建设理念、发展举措、管理体制、资金资助、建设实践等方面,对百余年来美国国家公园路的发展历程进行了深入解析,对发展经验启示进行总结,以期从本质上去把握国家公园路发展规律,并由此提出了中国国家公园路发展之借鉴。这些研究对于蓬勃发展的中国国家公园、国家公园路,以及旅游风景道及旅游公路来说,都具有十分重要的理论价值与实践意义。     

Synergies and trade-offs among integrated conservation approaches in Mexico

Integrated conservation approaches (ICAs) are employed by governments, communities, and nongovernmental organizations worldwide seeking to achieve outcomes with dual benefits for biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation. Although ICAs are frequently implemented concurrently, interactions among ICAs and the synergies or trade-offs that result are rarely considered during program design, implementation, and evaluation. In support of more deliberate and effective use of ICAs, we examined interactions among four well-known strategies: biosphere reserves (BRs), voluntary protected areas (VPAs), payments for ecosystem services (PES), and community forest management (CFM). Through a comparative case study, we analyzed interactions among spatially or temporally clustered ICAs implemented on communally held and managed lands in three ecologically and socioeconomically distinct regions of Mexico. Our research methods combined policy analysis with data gathered through participant observation and semistructured interviews (n = 78) and focus groups (n = 5) with government officials, implementers, and participants involved in ICAs in 28 communities. Despite the significant differences among the regions in which they were implemented, we found that key actors at each level of involvement generally perceived interactions among ICAs as synergistic. The PES programs were perceived to strengthen protected areas by reducing forest cover loss in and around BRs, fostering proconservation attitudes, and incentivizing the establishment of VPAs. Communities that invested PES income in CFM were motivated to conserve forests beyond the duration of PES programs, and CFM in buffer zones was perceived to strengthen BRs by maintaining forest cover and generating income for communities. We also identified key social and environmental factors that can influence these interaction effects among ICAs. Based on these findings, we recommend further study of ICA interactions and intentionally complementary policy design to maximize positive environmental and social outcomes.     

INTERBASIN TRANSFER-THE INTERNATIONAL DIMENSION1

ABSTRACT. A number of interbasin transfers are technically possible on an international scale but extremely few have been developed or are in prospect of early development. The institutional constraints are strong and nationalistic reactions to proposals which strongly favor either one of the nations involved have contributed to delays in development. Many of the more striking illustrations of the problems and opportunities relating to international transfers are present in the proposals for Canadian water export to the United States. Some have antagonized Canadians and made further negotiation difficult but phased and sequential transfers are possible and some could complement Canadian development. An important early phase might be the provision of guarantees for replacement supplies in option agreements that would free current surpluses within the United States for more intensive use. It should no longer be assumed that engineering development will provide adequate benefits for the source region. Allowances for opportunity costs, environmental improvements and some profit on sales appear to be needed for upstream areas if transfers are to be made. Many hazards are present but these can be more than offset by the opportunities if both countries strive for mutual benefit through rational study and continuing negotiation.     

Pricing behaviour and market power in North American non-ferrous metal industries

The paper considers the degree to which declining market power explains modifications in pricing behaviour observed since the late 1970s in the North American aluminium, copper, lead and zinc industries. More precisely, it relates those changes in pricing policies to the price elasticity of demand facing the dominant strategic group in each industry, the cost elasticity of supply and to the management's ability to coordinate or internalize conduct decisions. The results suggest that the firms in the copper and lead industries do not hold as a group any form of market power. In the case of the aluminum industry, a notable increase in the price elasticity of demand since the end of the 1970s, a sustained decrease in the concentration ratio and a rigid production process are weakening the presence of market power in that industry. The results are inconclusive in the case of the zinc industry since the determinants of market power move in opposite directions.     

Forest biorefineries - A business opportunity for the Finnish forest cluster

Bioenergy and biomass-based products offer the greatest new opportunities for diversifying business in the forest cluster. In particular, biorefineries, which can be integrated into the pulp and paper industry, seem to have immense future potential. This article aims to explore the biorefinery concept and related new products and business operations, as well as new business strategies and company models, which are part of the biorefinery value chain. These factors, which contribute to the establishment and success of forest biorefineries, were examined using internet survey responses and compared between Scandinavia, North America and South America. This article looks at the results of the survey - primarily from the Finnish perspective - to help identify competitive advantages upon which successful business operations in the Finnish forest cluster can be built.According to the survey, the outlooks for technical and raw material choices, as well as barriers to biorefinery diffusion, are very similar in all the studied areas. Biorefineries and related energy products are considered the way to sustainably guarantee the forest cluster’s success. An increase in the price of oil motivates the development of forest biorefineries and wood-based biofuels; however, it is obvious that there is a need to revaluate from a fresh perspective the utilisation of wood and the wood-refining chain in the forest cluster.The survey respondents consider wood-based biofuel and chemical production a serious business opportunity for the forest cluster. In Finland, there is a strong confidence in the production of biofuels. However, all the countries included in the study trust in their own national strengths and in their chance to be a leading actor in the forest biorefinery business worldwide. The forest biorefinery business seems to have market potential, and global competition can thus be expected.     

境外项目中方雇员(含华人)遭袭案例分析与规避

美国石油学会和美国石油炼制者协会提出了石油石化行业社会安全脆弱性评估方法,其中可能性的参考点主要包袭击动机、袭击方式、袭击时间、袭击地点和遭袭者身份5个要素,该风险评估模式仅对可能性的1～5级进行了简要的定性描述.对2001年1月至2014年4月间新闻媒体公开报道的122起境外中方人员(含华人)遭袭的事故案例进行了定量分析(袭击动机:抢劫钱财39.34％、地缘政治19.67％、宗教或文化冲突18.03％、社区诉求13.12％及其他动机9.84％.袭击方式:持枪袭击32.79％、实施暴力20.49％、绑架劫持19.67％、炸弹袭击12.30％及其他方式14.75％.袭击时间:凌晨18.03％、上午12.30％、中午4.10％、下午8.20％、夜间27.05％及不明时间30.32％.遭袭地点:人群集聚区24.59％、华人商业区22.15％、工地22.15％、路途13.13％、豪华酒店3.28％、郊区2.47％及其他地区12.23％.遭袭者身份:中方雇员41.80％、华人店主/个体35.24％、中国留学生8.20％、中方游客5.74％及其他人员9.02％),将此统计结果的百分比与可能性构成要素各项最高分级数值5相乘,得出以122起遭袭案例为样本的风险评估可能性的更为准确的数值.还结合该122起事故案例的统计分析结果详细介绍了中国石油天然气集团公司社会安全管理体系的关键性要素.     

Hydrological Responses to Climate and Land‐Use Changes along the North American East Coast: A 110‐Year Historical Reconstruction

The North American east coast (NAEC) region experienced significant climate and land‐use changes in the past century. To explore how these changes have affected land water cycling, the Dynamic Land Ecosystem Model (DLEM 2.0) was used to investigate the spatial and temporal variability of runoff and river discharge during 1901‐2010 in the study area. Annual runoff over the NAEC was 420 ± 61 mm/yr (average ± standard deviation). Runoff increased in parts of the northern NAEC but decreased in some areas of the southern NAEC. Annual freshwater discharge from the study area was 378 ± 61 km³/yr (average ± standard deviation). Factorial simulation experiments suggested that climate change and variability explained 97.5% of the interannual variability of runoff and also resulted in the opposite changes in runoff in northern and southern regions of the NAEC. Land‐use change reduced runoff by 5‐22 mm/yr from 1931 to 2010, but the impacts were divergent over the Piedmont region and Coastal Plain areas of the southern NAEC. Land‐use change impacts were more significant at local and watershed spatial scales rather than at regional scales. Different responses of runoff to changing climate and land‐use should be noted in future water resource management. Hydrological impacts of afforestation and deforestation as well as urbanization should also be noted by land‐use policy makers.     

Fish-Passage Facilities as Ecological Traps in Large Neotropical Rivers

Abstract:  At present most of the large rivers of South America are impounded. Management plans historically have relied on the construction of fish passages, specifically ladders, to mitigate the impact of these waterway blockages on fisheries and biodiversity. Nevertheless, the design of these facilities is not ecologically sound and they are not monitored continually. Consequently, the real role of South American fish passages in fisheries and biodiversity management is unclear and the results of some studies suggest that ladders are problematic in fish conservation. We examined the characteristics and negative aspects of fish passages within a larger context and considered the notion that these facilities are ecological traps in some Brazilian impoundments. Four conditions are required to characterize a fish passage as an ecological trap: (1) attractive forces leading fish to ascend the passage; (2) unidirectional migratory movements (upstream); (3) the environment above the passage has poor conditions for fish recruitment (e.g., the absence of spawning grounds and nursery areas); and (4) the environment below the passage has a proper structure for recruitment. When these conditions exist individuals move to poor-quality habitats, fitness is reduced, and populations are threatened. To exemplify this situation we analyzed two case studies in the upper Paraná River basin, Brazil, in which the four conditions were met and migratory fish populations were declining. If passages work as ecological traps, regional fisheries will be in danger of collapse and conservation policies toward biodiversity will become more difficult and ineffective. The situation demands the closing of the passage in conjunction with alternative management actions to preserve system functionality, especially the conservation of critical habitats downstream and the restoration of damaged habitats in the region.     

Learning for sustainability through CIDA's “Community-based pest management in Central American agriculture” project: a deliberative,experiential and iterative process

Community-based approaches to environmental management provide opportunities for public engagement in local decision-making processes. This qualitative case study examines learning as resulted from participation in CIDA's “Community-based pest management in Central American agriculture” project. Outcomes include learning about alternative farming practices, human and natural environments, and safer pesticide use. Many participants learnt how to work more effectively with rural communities. For some, this changed their perspective about life and their role in society. Activities that fostered learning outcomes, including sustainability-related outcomes, were: planning and implementing project activities, experimenting on farm demonstration plots, participating in outreach workshops, and students doing rural practica. The learning process, involving international university collaborators and rural participants, is analyzed particularly as it relates to cultural context, collective action, and sustainability. Findings affirm that how the public participates in environmental management decisions influences the breadth and depth of learning outcomes; practical and policy implications are discussed.