Exploring alternative states in ecological systems with a qualitative analysis of community feedback

Demonstrating and predicting the existence of alternative states in natural communities remains a challenge for ecologists and is essential for resource managers. Positive feedback is often presented as central in maintaining alternative ecosystem states, but no formal approach relates this part of theory to real world applications. Through qualitative modelling of community response to long-term perturbations, we define generic mechanistic links between positive feedback and the occurrence of alternative states. Positive feedback diminishes a system's overall resistance to change, and can create and maintain correlations in the relative abundance of variables that coincide with alternative states.Through specific models of the dynamics of Tasmanian rocky-reef communities, which are affected by climate and fishing and persist within alternative states, we demonstrate the ability of our theoretical framework to predict alternative states in ecosystems and inform management intervention. A qualitative knowledge of community structure permits a thorough analysis of system feedback and an assessment of the potential for an ecosystem to exhibit alternative states. We illustrate the usefulness of the approach to inform management priorities, and to focus monitoring and field research on the key drivers of ecosystem dynamics.     

Conservation value of small reserves

The importance of large reserves has been long maintained in the scientific literature, often leading to dismissal of the conservation potential of small reserves. However, over half the global protected-area inventory is composed of protected areas that are <100 ha, and the median size of added protected area is decreasing. Studies of the conservation value of small reserves and fragments of natural area are relatively uncommon in the literature. We reviewed SCOPUS and WOK for studies on small reserve and fragment contributions to biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services, and fifty-eight taxon-specific studies were included in the review. Small reserves harbored substantial portions (upward of 50%) of regional species diversity for many taxa (birds, plants, amphibians, and small mammals) and even some endemic, specialist bird species. Unfortunately, small reserves and fragments almost always harbored more generalist and exotic species than large reserves. Community composition depended on habitat quality, surrounding land use (agricultural vs. urban), and reserve and fragment size, which presents opportunities for management and improvement. Small reserves also provided ecosystem services, such as pollination and biological pest control, and cultural services, such as recreation and improved human health. Limitations associated with small reserves, such as extinction debt and support of area-sensitive species, necessitate a complement of larger reserves. However, we argue that small reserves can make viable and significant contributions to conservation goals directly as habitat and indirectly by increasing landscape connectivity and quality to the benefit of large reserves. To effectively conserve biodiversity for future generations in landscapes fragmented by human development, small reserves and fragments must be included in conservation planning.     

Edge effects on trophic cascades in tropical rainforests

The cascading effects of biodiversity loss on ecosystem functioning of forests have become more apparent. However, how edge effects shape these processes has yet to be established. We assessed how edge effects alter arthropod populations and the strength of any resultant trophic cascades on herbivory rate in tropical forests of Brazil. We established 7 paired forest edge and interior sites. Each site had a vertebrate-exclosure, procedural (exclosure framework with open walls), and control plot (total 42 plots). Forest patches were surrounded by pasture. Understory arthropods and leaf damage were sampled every 4 weeks for 11 months. We used path analysis to determine the strength of trophic cascades in the interior and edge sites. In forest interior exclosures, abundance of predaceous and herbivorous arthropods increased by 326% and 180%, respectively, compared with control plots, and there were significant cascading effects on herbivory. Edge-dwelling invertebrates responded weakly to exclusion and there was no evidence of trophic cascade. Our results suggest that the vertebrate community at forest edges controls invertebrate densities to a lesser extent than it does in the interior. Edge areas can support vertebrate communities with a smaller contingent of insectivores. This allows arthropods to flourish and indirectly accounts for higher levels of plant damage at these sites. Increased herbivory rates may have important consequences for floristic community composition and primary productivity, as well as cascading effects on nutrient cycling. By interspersing natural forest patches with agroforests, instead of pasture, abiotic edge effects can be softened and prevented from penetrating deep into the forest. This would ensure a greater proportion of forest remains habitable for sensitive species and could help retain ecosystem functions in edge zones.     

我国水生生态系统优先控制有机污染物的研究现状

介绍了我国对水生生态系统各相中各类环境优先控制有机污染物的分布、迁移转化规律及其归宿等方面的研究成果,着重论述了多环芳烃、多氯联苯和有机氯农药等在沉积物中的分布特征及污染来源判别的研究状况,同时指出了我国目前对于环境优先控制有机污染物研究的薄弱环节和今后努力的方向.      

氯代苯类化合物对江水细菌的毒性及QSAR研究

采用细菌生长抑制实验,测定了18种氯苯类化合物对长江水中混合细菌的毒性,得到24 hIC₅₀值,-1gIC₅₀为3.65～4.32,其中,毒性最弱的是氯苯,毒性最强的是1,2,4-三氯苯.选用分子连接性指数法对毒性数据进行定量结构活性关系(QSAR)研究.结果表明,氯苯类化合物对江水细菌的毒性与苯环上取代基的种类、数目和位置有关,价分子连接性指数0XV和7X_CHV能够很好地描述氯苯类化合物对江水细菌的毒性.方程-1gIC₅₀=0.8390XV-25.3727X_CHV+0.802的稳健性很好,该模型的预测值与毒性实测值之间的相关系数达0.948.      

鲁北工业生态系统分析

对工业生态系统进行分析可以发现提高和改进工业生态系统效率以及系统结构的潜在机会．以鲁北工业生态系统为例,采用自然生态系统网络分析方法分别从工业生态系统的链网结构、物种绝对刚度、物种对系统的影响强度及系统稳定性等4个方面进行分析．结果表明,在该工业生态系统中,中位种的比例明显偏少;氢气和SO2的绝对刚度最大;硫酸、合成氨和磷酸是系统的主导节点;合成氨的系统刚度最大。     

基于信息熵的城市生态系统演化分析

基于耗散结构理论和城市复合生态系统理论,构建了城市生态系统演化分析的指标体系,建立了评估城市生态系统演化的量化模型,采用基于信息熵的分析方法,可获得城市生态系统演化评估的年份信息熵和指标信息熵：采用年份信息熵计算城市系统的支持型输入熵、压力型输出压力熵、氧化型代谢熵和还原型代谢熵,分析系统的有序以及复杂性;采用指标信息熵可确定各个指标的权重,再结合各个指标的归一化值,得到综合评估得分值,作为评估城市可持续发展水平的指数值,确定系统的发展度和协调度。以宁波市为例,应用量化模型纵向评价了1996--2003年城市可持续发展进程．评价结果表明：宁波城市生态系统的健康、有序水平不断提高,协调能力不断增强,系统活力有待改善．1996--2003年,宁波城市生态系统的熵流、熵产生、总熵均呈现出下降趋势,城市发展目标逐渐明确、有序度不断增强;宁波城市生态系统熵流的发展度和协调度不断提高,表现为由较强的社会经济压力向较强的自然生态支持力转变;宁波城市生态系统熵产生的发展度呈先增后减的趋势,表明城市系统代谢功能不稳定,其协调度呈现出振荡趋势,经历了氧化型代谢→还原型代谢→氧化型代谢的转变。     

生态综合指数及其在生态状况评估中的应用研究

在综合分析国内外评估判断生态状况的理论和方法的基础上,提出适合我国国情的定量化的科学评估生态状况的方法--生态综合指数法。生态综合指数可用于对我国生态治理与生态破坏处于何种阶段进行量化的、内在的和综合的判断。结合我国生态建设的现状,从层次性、系统性、现实性、重要性4个方面综合考虑,对生态综合指数的指标进行了合理的选取,包括森林、荒漠、水土流失、生物多样性、湿地、草原、农田、城市生态状况等8项指标。生态综合指数的计算方法,分总指标公式、第一层次指标公式和第二层次指标公式3部分,从数学分析方法上属于层次分析法(AHP),各级指标层次分明,重点突出。将生态综合指数E(CI)分为3个区域:ECI<1,ECI=1(±0.05),ECI>1。经计算,我国生态综合指数为1.02,处于生态综合指数=1(±0.05)区域,据此判断,我国目前处于生态治理与生态破坏的相持阶段,国家必须继续进行大规模的生态建设,以促进生态系统向良性阶段递进。应用生态综合指数对我国生态状况进行综合判断,对于我国生态建设的理论和实践都具有重要意义。     

中国生态环境问题及环境保护计划

本将中国面临的生态环境问题归纳为七大问题,即：土地流失、土地荒漠化、森林覆盖面积减少、草原退化、自然灾害加剧、空气污染和酸雨、水污染和缺水。以统计数据为依据,从7个方面展现了生态环境的现状和遭受破坏的程度。扼要说明了由灾害和污染所造成的经济损失。介绍了中国政府就治理污染、防止生态环境破坏的环境保护计划。     

Benefits of Investing in Ecosystem Restoration

Measures aimed at conservation or restoration of ecosystems are often seen as net‐cost projects by governments and businesses because they are based on incomplete and often faulty cost‐benefit analyses. After screening over 200 studies, we examined the costs (94 studies) and benefits (225 studies) of ecosystem restoration projects that had sufficient reliable data in 9 different biomes ranging from coral reefs to tropical forests. Costs included capital investment and maintenance of the restoration project, and benefits were based on the monetary value of the total bundle of ecosystem services provided by the restored ecosystem. Assuming restoration is always imperfect and benefits attain only 75% of the maximum value of the reference systems over 20 years, we calculated the net present value at the social discount rates of 2% and 8%. We also conducted 2 threshold cum sensitivity analyses. Benefit‐cost ratios ranged from about 0.05:1 (coral reefs and coastal systems, worst‐case scenario) to as much as 35:1 (grasslands, best‐case scenario). Our results provide only partial estimates of benefits at one point in time and reflect the lower limit of the welfare benefits of ecosystem restoration because both scarcity of and demand for ecosystem services is increasing and new benefits of natural ecosystems and biological diversity are being discovered. Nonetheless, when accounting for even the incomplete range of known benefits through the use of static estimates that fail to capture rising values, the majority of the restoration projects we analyzed provided net benefits and should be considered not only as profitable but also as high‐yielding investments. Beneficios de Invertir en la Restauración de Ecosistemas