Interconnectivity between the Superficial Aquifer and the Deep Confined Aquifers of the Gnangara Mound, Western Australia

Perth groundwater resources are obtained from three major aquifers that occur beneath the Perth metropolitan area: the Superficial aquifer, Leederville aquifer and Yarragadee aquifer. Each aquifer has a unique seasonal water level pattern controlled by soils, geomorphology and geology. Landuse is mainly responsible for variations in recharge; however, the hydraulic properties control aquifer response and water level pattern to a greater degree. Groundwater in the three aquifers is generally of very good quality except in localised areas. Salinity increases with depth and in direction of groundwater flow in the three aquifers. The best water quality is in the Superficial aquifer in the Wanneroo well field area. The geochemistry and stable isotope signatures from the three major aquifers revealed distinct water types that suggest very little hydraulic connection or mixing of waters between these aquifers at the present abstraction and recharge regimes. The results also show that the Leederville and Yarragadee aquifers were recharged during earlier cooler times while the Superficial aquifer is being recharged at present.     

GEOMORPHOLOGY OF STEEPLAND HEADWATERS: THE TRANSITION FROM HILLSLOPES TO CHANNELS1

Headwater streams comprise 60 to 80 percent of the cumulative length of river networks. In hilly to mountainous terrain, they reflect a mix of hillslope and channel processes because of their close proximity to sediment source areas. Their morphology is an assemblage of residual soils, landslide deposits, wood, boulders, thin patches of poorly sorted alluvium, and stretches of bedrock. Longitudinal profiles of these channels are strongly influenced by steps created by sediment deposits, large wood, and boulders. Due to the combination of small drainage area, stepped shallow gradient, large roughness elements, and cohesive sediments, headwater streams typically transport little sediment or coarse wood debris by fluvial processes. Consequently, headwaters act as sediment reservoirs for periods spanning decades to centuries. The accumulated sediment and wood may be episodically evacuated by debris flows, debris floods, or gully erosion and transported to larger channels. In mountain environments, these processes deliver significant amounts of materials that form riverine habitats in larger channels. In managed steepland forests, accelerated rates of landslides and debris flows resulting from the harvest of headwater forests have the potential to seriously impact the morphology of headwater streams and downstream resources.     

DRY AND WET WEATHER FLOW NUTRIENT LOADS FROM A LOS ANGELES WATERSHED1

Effective watershed management requires an accurate assessment of the pollutant loads from the associated point and nonpoint sources. The importance of wet weather flow (WWF) pollutant loads is well known, but in semi‐arid regions where urbanization is significant the pollutant load in dry weather flow (DWF) may also be important. This research compares the relative contributions of potential contaminants discharged in DWF and WWF from the Ballona Creek Watershed in Los Angeles, California. Models to predict DWF and WWF loads of total suspended solids, biochemical oxygen demand, nitrate‐nitrogen, nitrite‐nitrogen, ammonia‐nitrogen, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, and total phosphorus from the Ballona Creek Watershed for six water years dating from 1991 to 1996 were developed. The contaminants studied were selected based on data availability and their potential importance in the degradation of Ballona Creek and Santa Monica Bay beneficial uses. Wet weather flow was found to contribute approximately 75 percent to 90 percent of the total annual flow volume discharged by the Ballona Creek Watershed. Pollutant loads are also predominantly due to WWF, but during the dry season, DWF is a more significant contributor. Wet weather flow accounts for 67 to 98 percent of the annual load of the constituents studied. During the dry season, however, the portion attributable to DWF increases to greater than 40 percent for all constituents except biochemical oxygen demand and total suspended solids. When individual catchments within the watershed are considered, the DWF pollutant load from the largest catchment is similar to the WWF pollutant load in two other major catchments. This research indicates WWF is the most significant source of nonpoint source pollution load on an annual basis, but management of the effects of the nonpoint source pollutant load should consider the seasonal importance of DWF.     

BASE FLOW RECESSION RATES,LOW FLOWS,AND HYDROLOGIC FEATURES OF SMALL WATERSHEDS IN PENNSYLVANIA,USA1

This paper examines the relationships between measurable watershed hydrologic features, base flow recession rates, and the Q_7,10 low flow statistic (the annual minimum seven‐day average streamflow occurring once every 10 years on average). Base flow recession constants were determined by analyzing hydrograph recession data from 24 small (>130 km²), unregulated watersheds across five major physiographic provinces of Pennsylvania, providing a highly variable dataset. Geomorphic, hydrogeologic, and land use parameters were determined for each watershed. The base flow recession constant was found to be most strongly correlated to drainage density, geologic index, and ruggedness number (watershed slope); however, these three parameters are intercorrelated. Multiple regression models were developed for predicting the recession rate, and it was found that only two parameters, drainage density and hydrologic soil group, were required to obtain good estimates of the recession constant. Equations were also developed to relate the recession rates to Q_7,10 per unit area, and to the Q_7,10/Q₅₀ ratio. Using these equations, estimates of base flow recession rates, Q_7,10, and streamflow reduction under drought conditions can be made for small, ungaged basins across a wide range of physiography.     

BASE FLOW TRENDS IN URBANIZING WATERSHEDS OF THE DELAWARE RIVER BASIN1

Rapid land development is raising concern regarding the ability of urbanizing watersheds to sustain adequate base flow during periods of drought. Long term streamflow records from unregulated watersheds of the lower to middle Delaware River basin are examined to evaluate the impact of urbanization and imperviousness on base flow. Trends in annual base flow volumes, seven‐day low flows, and runoff ratios are determined for six urbanizing watersheds and four reference watersheds across three distinct physiographic regions. Hydrograph separation is used to determine annual base flow and stormflow volumes, and nonparametric trend tests are conducted on the resulting time series. Of the watersheds examined, the expected effects of declining base flow volumes and seven‐day low flows and increasing stormflows are seen in only one watershed that is approximately 20 percent impervious and has been subject to a net water export over the past 15 years. Both interbasin transfers and hydrologic mechanisms are invoked to explain these results. The results show that increases in impervious area may not result in measurable reductions in base flow at the watershed scale.     

Experimental study on explosion inhibition by heptafluoropropane and its synergy with inert gas

The inhibition effect of heptafluoropropane (CF₃CHFCF₃) on methane explosions under different inhibitor concentrations in a closed vessel was studied. A high-speed camera and a pressure sensor were adopted respectively to record flame propagation characteristics and pressure data. Results indicate that the relationship between flame propagation and pressure rising was correlated. As the equivalent ratio (ϕ)≤1, the pressure presented a trend of rising firstly and then decreasing with increasing CF₃CHFCF₃ concentration, and it was found that there existed a critical concentration for pressure decrease. As ϕ > 1, the pressure exhibited a decreasing trend. Although the pressure appeared to seemingly increase, the moment that the pressure began to rise (t_rise) and the moment that the maximum explosion overpressure appeared (t_Pmax) were obviously delayed. The average rate of pressure rise ((dP/dt)_ave) was decreased as the concentration of CF3CHFCF3 increased. It indicates that CF₃CHFCF₃ can effectively reduce the explosion reaction rate. The critical concentration of CF₃CHFCF₃ for complete inhibition was determined. Meanwhile, the synergy of CF₃CHFCF₃-inert gas can improve the inhibition effect. Compared with CF₃CHFCF₃–N₂, the synergy of CF₃CHFCF₃–CO₂ presented a better inhibition effect, and the inhibition effect was increased with increasing inert gas concentration. And the mechanisms of physical and chemical effects on explosion inhibition were analyzed.     

Material flow analysis of lubricating oil use in California

Petroleum lubricating oils, used throughout the economy, are distinct among petroleum products in their capacity to be recovered and recycled at the end of their useful life. Used lubricating oil is regulated at the state and federal level because of concerns about environmental impacts arising from improper disposal, although rates of recovery are not known. We present a material flow analysis of lubricants through California's economy in the years 2007–2012. We introduce a novel technique for computing aggregate waste generation from a collection of hazardous waste manifest records, and apply it in order to determine a recovery rate for used oil and to estimate the quantity of oil managed informally in the state. The records also offer a detailed view of the fate of used oils after they are recovered. We find that around 62% of lubricants are recoverable at end of life, of which 70–80% is being recovered. This rate shows a slight downward trend. If the trend is accurate, measures should be taken to improve the performance of the used oil management system. Policy opportunities exist to reduce the quantity of oil managed informally through improving access to responsible used oil management methods. These include increasing the collection of used oil from industrial sources as well as “do it yourself” oil changes, expanding in-state reprocessing capacity, and promoting increased out-of-state reprocessing of used oil. Our methods introduce new possibilities to make use of direct observation in material flow analysis, potentially improving data availability and quality and increasing the relevance of material flow methods in policy applications.     

煤矿火灾烟气流动传播过程仿真研究

煤矿发生火灾后会生成大量有毒气体并产生火风压,烟气在火灾动力的影响下出现状态紊乱,研究煤矿火灾烟气流动传播过程对控制火情有着重要意义。基于国内外研究现状,对燃烧及风流特点进行分析,建立了煤矿火灾烟气流动数学模型,并利用CFD软件进行仿真。研究表明:无通风工况下的烟气为对称流动;随着风速增加,出口处温度降低,烟气向风流入口处的流速减小。     

Experimental and theoretical investigation of dry-water containing phosphoric acid for new fire suppressant

To overcome the shortcomings of phosphorus-containing compounds (PCCs, not widely used) in fire suppression, the dry water powder containing phosphoric acid was analyzed for a new fire suppressant (SiO₂-P). First, the fine conditions (solid-to-liquid ratio, stirring time and stirring speed) were determined to prepare the new powder. The particle size distributions and XPS of SiO₂-P powder were analyzed. The TG tests were conducted to study the decomposition of powder, and there was a major decomposition peak. Second, the extinguishing time of SiO₂-P powder was tested, which showed that the SiO₂-P powder containing phosphorus species could significantly improve the fire suppression ability. In addition, the kinetic parameters of powder decomposition reaction were determined by genetic algorithm based on TG results. Last, based on the decomposition products and kinetic parameters, the burning velocity and mass fraction of free radicals of CH₄/air flame with SiO₂-P powder addition were studied theoretically. The results indicated that SiO₂-P powder had great ability of reducing the burning velocity and scavenging free radicals. Furthermore, the suppression effects were analyzed, which indicated that the cooperation of H₂O and P suppression effect dominated the suppression mechanism and resulted in the good suppression efficiency.     

Implications of Macroalgal Isolation by Distance for Networks of Marine Protected Areas

The global extent of macroalgal forests is declining, greatly affecting marine biodiversity at broad scales through the effects macroalgae have on ecosystem processes, habitat provision, and food web support. Networks of marine protected areas comprise one potential tool that may safeguard gene flow among macroalgal populations in the face of increasing population fragmentation caused by pollution, habitat modification, climate change, algal harvesting, trophic cascades, and other anthropogenic stressors. Optimal design of protected area networks requires knowledge of effective dispersal distances for a range of macroalgae. We conducted a global meta‐analysis based on data in the published literature to determine the generality of relation between genetic differentiation and geographic distance among macroalgal populations. We also examined whether spatial genetic variation differed significantly with respect to higher taxon, life history, and habitat characteristics. We found clear evidence of population isolation by distance across a multitude of macroalgal species. Genetic and geographic distance were positively correlated across 49 studies; a modal distance of 50–100 km maintained F_ST < 0.2. This relation was consistent for all algal divisions, life cycles, habitats, and molecular marker classes investigated. Incorporating knowledge of the spatial scales of gene flow into the design of marine protected area networks will help moderate anthropogenic increases in population isolation and inbreeding and contribute to the resilience of macroalgal forests. Implicaciones del Aislamiento por Distancia de Macroalgas para Redes de Áreas Marinas Protegidas