INTER-STATE WATER DISPUTES: A CASE STUDY OF INDIA1

ABSTRACT: During the last 27 years of independence, a large number of inter-state water disputes cropped up over the use of rivers. Surprisingly enough, more disputes developed in this short period than in the earlier 200 years of the development of irrigation and so far none of the disputes has been permanently solved. The major rivers of India are all inter-state rivers and this is one of the more important reasons why some of them are not yet fully developed for irrigation or power production. The Union Government has set up, so far, only three tribunals to adjudicate inter-state disputes. But the problems do not end simply by setting up the tribunals. In practice, it has also proved a dilatory process. None of the tribunals has been successful in settling any dispute in the long years of their existence. There is no codified law prescribing rights and the notion of “equity” has come to prevail restraining the upper states from drawing such quantities of water as would injure the interests of the lower states. Though the general principle of equitable apportionment had been advocated many times, in practice each contending state had given this principle an interpretation that suited it. The basic principle would be to harness the rivers not for the benefit of a particular state but for the maximization of agricultural, industrial, and navigational potential in the areas served by the rivers.     

Assessment of Environmental Water Demands (EWD) of Forests for Two Distinct Indian Ecosystems

Sustainable use of water and land resources requires that these scarce resources be appropriately allocated among various competing human activities. Worldwide, there is a realization now that sustainable river basin management should be accorded the highest priority, because it deals not only with technical, but also with ecological and socioeconomic aspects, and thus calls for a multidisciplinary and integrated approach. However, most of the policy and planning documents have either remained silent, or have made only implicit reference to the importance of environmental water demand (EWD) and its quantification. Therefore, in the light of its importance, a methodology has been evolved in this article for quantifying EWD for various forested areas in two distinctly different Indian river basins: Brahmani (humid zone) and Sabarmati (dry zone). The article analyzes and discusses EWD estimates at three different spatial levels: river basins, states, and districts within them, and finally presents a comparative analysis of all these results. Findings of the present study will be immensely useful in understanding various ecological issues connected with water resource projects and proposals in these river basins.     

Biological Connectivity of Seasonally Ponded Wetlands across Spatial and Temporal Scales

Many species that inhabit seasonally ponded wetlands also rely on surrounding upland habitats and nearby aquatic ecosystems for resources to support life stages and to maintain viable populations. Understanding biological connectivity among these habitats is critical to ensure that landscapes are protected at appropriate scales to conserve species and ecosystem function. Biological connectivity occurs across a range of spatial and temporal scales. For example, at annual time scales many organisms move between seasonal wetlands and adjacent terrestrial habitats as they undergo life‐stage transitions; at generational time scales, individuals may disperse among nearby wetlands; and at multigenerational scales, there can be gene flow across large portions of a species’ range. The scale of biological connectivity may also vary among species. Larger bodied or more vagile species can connect a matrix of seasonally ponded wetlands, streams, lakes, and surrounding terrestrial habitats on a seasonal or annual basis. Measuring biological connectivity at different spatial and temporal scales remains a challenge. Here we review environmental and biological factors that drive biological connectivity, discuss implications of biological connectivity for animal populations and ecosystem processes, and provide examples illustrating the range of spatial and temporal scales across which biological connectivity occurs in seasonal wetlands.     

Changes in Hydrology of the Ganges Delta of Bangladesh and Corresponding Impacts on Water Resources

The Ganges Delta in Bangladesh is an example of water‐related catastrophes in a major rural river basin where limitations in quantity, quality, and timing of available water are producing disastrous conditions. Water availability limitations are modifying the hydrologic characteristics especially when water allocation is controlled from the upstream Farakka Barrage. This study presents the changes and consequences in the hydrologic regime due to climate‐ and human‐induced stresses. Flow duration curves (FDCs), rainfall elasticity, and temperature sensitivity were used to assess the pre‐ and post‐barrage water flow patterns. Hydrologic and climate indices were computed to provide insight on hydro‐climatic variability and trend. Significant increases in temperature, evapotranspiration, hot days, heating, and cooling degree days indicate the region is heading toward a warmer climate. Moreover, increase in high‐intensity rainfall of short duration is making the region prone to extreme floods. FDCs depict a large reduction in river flows between pre‐ and post‐barrage periods, resulting in lower water storage capacity. The reduction in freshwater flow increased the extent and intensity of salinity intrusion. This freshwater scarcity is reducing livelihood options considerably and indirectly forcing population migration from the delta region. Understanding the causes and directions of hydrologic changes is essential to formulate improve water resources management in the region.     

Integrating channel design and assessment methods based on sediment transport capacity in gravel bed streams

Natural channel design (NCD) and analytical channel design (ACD) are two competing approaches to stable channel design that share fundamental similarities in accounting for sediment transport processes with designs based on hybrid fluvial geomorphology and hydraulic engineering methods. In this paper, we highlight the linkage between ACD's capacity/supply ratio (CSR) and NCD's sediment capacity models (FLOWSED/POWERSED), illustrating how ACD and NCD have reached a point of convergent evolution within the stream restoration toolbox. We modified an existing CSR analytical spreadsheet tool which enabled us to predict relative channel stability using both conventional bed load transport equations and regional sediment regression curves. The stable channel design solutions based on measured data most closely matched the Parker (ACD) and/or Pagosa good/fair (NCD) relationships, which also showed the greatest CSR sensitivity in response to channel alterations. We found that CSR differences among the transport relationships became more extreme the further the design width deviated from the supply reach, suggesting that a stable upstream supply reach may serve as the best design analog. With this paper, we take a step toward resolving lingering controversy in the field of stream restoration, advancing the science and practice by reconciling key differences between ACD and NCD in the context of reach scale morphodynamics.     

Flow‐Biology Relationships Based on Fish Habitat Guilds in North Carolina

The health of freshwater biota is dependent on streamflow, yet identification of the flow regimes required to maintain ecological integrity remains challenging to states in the United States seeking to establish ecological flows. We tested the relationship between decreases in streamflow and Shannon‐Weaver diversity index of fish species for four flow‐based habitat guilds: riffle, riffle‐run, pool‐run, and pool in North Carolina. We found species that prefer shallow habitats, such as riffles and riffle‐runs were the most sensitive to decreases in streamflow; whereas no significant relationships were found for pool or pool‐run species. The sensitivity to decreases in streamflow was greatest during summer and fall, when streams are naturally lower. When all fish habitat guilds were included in the assessment of flow‐biology relationships, there were no significant relationships to decreases in streamflow. As the sensitivity of fish to reductions in streamflow is not constant across habitat guilds, combining all fish species together for flow‐biology analyses may greatly underestimate the response of fish species to decreases in flow and should be acknowledged when establishing ecological flows.     

南海北部海岛周边海域生态环境质量综合评价

基于国内外海洋生态环境质量综合评价方法,结合我国海洋生态环境调查数据,从环境和生物学要素中选取12个指标建立评价指标体系,确定5个评价等级及标准,采用层次分析法确定指标权重,构建我国海岛周边海域生态环境质量综合评价方法.选取南海北部10个代表性海岛,对其周边海域生态环境质量进行综合评价,结果表明：研究海岛中特呈岛和内伶仃岛评价等级为中,其余8个海岛均为良;离岸距离、陆源污染物排放量和海水交换能力直接影响评价结果.该方法能较好地反映海岛周边海域生态环境状况,可操作性强,可作为今后我国海岛周边海域生态环境质量评价的参考.     

复合型人工湿地对抚仙湖入湖河道污水中氮的去除

在抚仙湖北岸构建复合型人工湿地污水处理系统,对窑泥沟入湖河道污水中氮的去除效果进行了试验研究,结果表明,系统水力负荷年平均为37mm/d,氮负荷年平均为3.315g/m2·d,对污水中NOx、NH+4、TON和TN去除率年平均分别为62.7%、53.8%、62.4%和57.5%.     

上海城市河道治理工程简介

对上海中心城区内5条污染河道的背景情况、治理工程措施及实践效果进行了介绍,对国内相似地区开展城市水环境整治工作具有一定的参考价值。     

城市污染河湖的综合整治技术及应用研究

分析了城市污染河流和湖泊污染的原因,将污染河流和湖泊治理的方法分为＂物理法、化学法、生物法、生态法＂共四大类,介绍了常用技术方法的原理和特点。根据河流和湖泊的污染现状和治理目标,提出了城市污染河湖的综合整治分为＂治理＂与＂生态修复＂两个阶段,探讨了采用＂截污、清淤、曝气、生物载体、水生植物＂等综合应用技术治理河湖的必要性和迫切性,并结合近年来国内河湖综合整治的典型案例,总结了河湖整治过程的＂基础措施＂和＂关键措施＂。