Strain analysis in Jurassic argillites of the Monte Sirino area (Lagonegro Zone, southern Apennines, Italy) and implications for deformation paths in pelitic rocks

Analysis of strain in Jurassic argillites forming part of the folded and thrusted sedimentary succession of the Lagonegro basin (southern Italian Apennines) has been carried out using ellipsoid-shaped 'reduction' spots as strain markers. Most of the determined finite strain ellipsoids are of oblate type and show a peculiar distribution of the maximum extension direction ( X), with maxima either subparallel or subperpendicular to the local fold axes. Using the strain matrix method, two different deformation histories have been considered to assist the interpretation of the observed finite strain pattern. A first deformation history involved vertical compaction followed by horizontal shortening (occurring by a combination of true tectonic strain and volume loss), whereby all strain is coaxial and there is no change in the intermediate axis of the strain ellipsoid. By this type of deformation sequence, which produces a deformation path where total strain moves from the oblate to the prolate strain field and back to the oblate field, prolate strain ellipsoids can be generated and may be recorded where tectonic deformation has not been large enough to reverse pre-tectonic compaction. This type of deformation history may be of local importance within the study area (i.e. it may characterize some fold hinge regions) and, more generally, is probably of limited occurrence in deformed pelitic rocks. A second deformation sequence considered the superposition of pre-tectonic compaction and tectonic strain consisting of initial layer-parallel shortening followed by layer-parallel shear (related to flexural folding). Also in this instance, volume change during tectonic deformation and tectonic plane strain have been assumed. For geologically reasonable amounts of volume loss due to compaction and of initial layer-parallel shortening, this type of deformation history is capable of producing a deformation path entirely lying within the oblate strain field, but still characterized by a changeover, during deformation, of the maximum extension axis ( X) from a position parallel to the fold axis to one perpendicular to it. This type of deformation sequence may explain the main strain features observed in the study area, where most of the measured finite strain ellipsoids, determined from the limb regions of flexural folds, display an oblate shape, irrespective of the orientation of their maximum extension direction ( X) with respect to the local structural trends. More generally, this type of deformation history provides a mechanism to account for the predominance of oblate strains in deformed pelitic rocks. Key words Finite strain states · Compaction · Tectonic strain · Deformation gradient tensors · Deformation paths     

汽车代用燃料及应用前景

介绍了已经开发使用的代用燃料氢气，甲醇，乙醇，新配方汽油，天然气，液化石油气，电动汽车等，并对代用燃料车和汽油车的环境安全性，成本，能耗消耗等方面作了比较，指出天然气，液化石油气是当前最有前途的代用燃料。     

Population frequencies of alternative male phenotypes in tree lizards: geographic variation and common-garden rearing studies

Tree lizards (Urosaurus ornatus) vary in throat fan (dewlap) color. Earlier, we described five dewlap types (Orange, Orange-Blue, Yellow, Yellow-Blue, and Blue), and reported that only males had blue in the dewlap and that presence or absence of a discrete blue patch was correlated with male alternative reproductive phenotypes in a central Arizona population. Here, with a modified scheme characterizing two dewlap elements, background color (orange, yellow, blue) and blue patch occurrence, we assessed: (1) sexual, annual, and geographic variation in the frequencies of dewlap elements; (2) simple habitat correlates; and (3) the effects of laboratory rearing regime on dewlap type. Within a population, frequencies of males and females expressing orange or yellow backgrounds did not differ, suggesting that control of background is similar in the sexes. Within several populations, frequencies of the dewlap elements did not differ across years (and probably generations), indicating that phenotype frequencies are relatively stable. Among five populations frequencies of background colors varied, as did frequencies of male types (blue patch present or absent). Dewlap frequencies did not correlate with habitat (boulders or mesquite trees), although few populations were sampled. In male and female offspring reared from eggs to sexual maturity in a common-garden laboratory study, background color frequencies in both sexes and blue patch frequencies in males differed among offspring from different populations. Offspring frequencies matched respective parental population frequencies. Results suggest that among-population variation in frequencies of the two dewlap elements are mediated by differences in genetics, in maternal effects, or both. Thus, differences in male behavior functionally linked to the blue patch also may be controlled by genetic or maternal effects. Received: 17 January 1997 / Accepted after revision: 30 August 1997     

Evolution of male dimorphic allometry in a population of the Japanese horned beetle <Emphasis Type="Italic">Trypoxylus dichotomus septentrionalis</Emphasis>

I conducted a detailed morphological analysis of the Japanese horned beetle Trypoxylus dichotomus septentrionalis to clarify the allometric relationship between horn length and body size and examined its mating success and reproductive behaviour in the field. The relationship between horn and body size was not discontinuous at the switch point body size, but the slope of the linear relationship changed at the switch point. Shape of the allometric relationship was initially steep and became flatten around the switch point in both linear and log scales; that is, minor males showed a positive relationship and major males showed a negative one. Major males gained more mating success than minor males. Within major males, individuals with larger horn or body size had higher mating success than individuals with smaller ones. Within minor males there were no differences in horn and body size between mated and unmated individuals. Although sneak-like behaviours were exhibited by both morphs, it is likely that these behaviours rarely lead to direct benefit. These results suggest that dimorphic allometry of T. dichotomus is consistent with the hypothesis of a continuous reaction norm that meets a ceiling, which restrains further allometric growth.     

Alternative reproductive tactics and male-dimorphism in the horned beetle Onthophagus acuminatus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)

Adult dung beetles (Onthophagus acuminatus) exhibit continuous variation in body size resulting from differential nutritional conditions experienced during larval development. Males of this species have a pair of horns that protrude from the base of the head, and the lengths of these horns are bimodally distributed in natural populations. Males growing larger than a threshold body size develop long horns, and males that do not achieve this size grow only rudimentary horns or no horns at all. Previous studies of other horned beetle species have shown that horned and hornless males often have different types of reproductive behavior. Here I describe the mating behaviors of the two male morphs of O. acuminatus during encounters with females. Females excavate tunnels beneath dung, where they feed, mate and provision eggs. Large, horned males were found to guard entrances to tunnels containing females. These males fought with all other males that attempted to enter these tunnels. In contrast, small, hornless males encountered females by sneaking into tunnels guarded by other males. In many instances, this was accomplished by digging new tunnels that intercepted the guarded tunnels below ground. Side-tunneling behavior allowed sneaking males to enter tunnels beneath the guarding male, and mate with females undetected. Both overall body size and relative horn length significantly affected the outcome of fights over tunnel ownership. These results suggest that alternative reproductive tactics may favor divergence in male horn morphology, with long horns favored in males large enough to guard tunnels, and hornlessness favored in smaller males that adopt the “sneaking” behavioral alternative. Received: 12 October 1996 / Accepted after revision: 8 August 1997     

Glycerol as a green solvent for high product yields and selectivities

Organic synthesis is usually performed in solution to dissolve both reactants and catalysts and to deliver heat. Here, we show that glycerol, which is a non-toxic, biodegradable, and recyclable liquid manufactured from renewable sources, has a high potential to serve as alternative green solvent for organic reactions. Several catalytic and non-catalytic reactions were successfully performed in glycerol. High products yields and selectivities were achieved. Besides solubility of the reactants and the catalysts and easy separation of the product, glycerol offers several other benefits such as catalyst recycling, microwave assisting reaction, and biphasic and emulsion modes.     

Sperm traits of the quacking frog, Crinia georgiana: intra- and interpopulation variation in a species with a high risk of sperm competition

Sperm traits often show extreme variation both between and within species. Between-species variation may often be interpreted in the context of a sperm competition theory, but within-species variation has remained unexplained. Previous studies on intraspecific variation in sperm traits have focused on a limited set of variables and may have failed to explain observed variation because of potential trade-offs between different sperm traits. We report on variation in number, size, motility and longevity of sperm in the frog Crinia georgiana, a species where sperm competition is common. We found intrapopulation variation in sperm size and motility and interpopulation variation in relative sperm number and size. When we combined relative sperm number and size into one variable, and motility and longevity into another, we found significant interpopulation variation in these variables as well. We also detected considerable intra- and significant interpopulation variation in cumulative sperm quality, a combination of all four sperm traits. Furthermore, a significant effect of the interaction between population origin and male size on sperm characteristics indicated interpopulation variation in the strength of selection acting on sperm traits of males adopting different mating strategies. We discuss heterogeneity in the reproductive environment, a complex genetic background in the determination of sperm characteristics and varying levels of developmental noise as potential contributors to the observed variation in sperm traits.     

Anthropogenic-driven changes with focus on the coastal zone of Mauritius, south-western Indian Ocean

Some 44% of the world's population lives within 150 km of the coast and mass migration towards the coast will continue in the decades ahead. Degrading and exhaustive uses of land, water and other coastal resources and disruption of environmental processes through degradation of environmental quality and loss of critical terrestrial and aquatic habitats can lead to serious deleterious impacts on the health and productivity of coastal ecosystems. Following the Arusha Resolution (1993), the Seychelles Statement (1996) and the Colombo CZM Workshop (1999), the need for integrated coastal zone management has become critical because of the limited land resources and unproportional domination of coastal areas in the wider Caribbean and Indian Ocean/ Pacific island states. The coastal zone of Mauritius (1,850 km², 20°S, 58°E, south-western Indian Ocean, 1.12 million inhabitants) was redefined in 1997 in the Environmental Protection Act of 1991 [Part VII (Act 34)] to include all islets within the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ; 1.7 million km²). During the 1980s, the Mauritian economy underwent major structural changes successfully, with a rapid phase of industrialization diversifying into two major activities, textiles and tourism. Existing reports and data in a common framework have to be synthesized and organized to fill existing gaps in knowledge with data collection and scientific inquiries, to identify social and economic drivers and to relate socioeconomic change to demands for environmental resources (land use, water resources, marine systems) and environmental impacts as proposed under the MERMAID (Mauritius Environmental Resource Management and Industrial Development) project. Nutrient flux and sediment trace metal contamination studies are currently underway to investigate different watersheds impacted by agricultural, urban and industrial activities in the north-west of the island. There is a pressing need to integrate the natural sciences with socioeconomic disciplines as proposed by the International Human Dimensions Program (IHDP) for an integrated management of coastal zones. Three integrated pilot projects in the Pacific-Indian Ocean and wider Caribbean as identified by Land Ocean Interaction in the Coastal Zone (LOICZ) in the future, including current status and changes in material fluxes from drainage basins, transboundary impacts from the ocean and atmospheric inputs, could elucidate the land–sea interactions and human dimensions of change on small islands. The sustainability of marine resources and the conservation of biological diversity will depend on a critical understanding of linkages between human activities and ecological responses and upon a citizenry that assumes ownership of these regions. Case studies would also help in investigating how humans affect transport pathways and biogeochemical cycles in small island states. Electronic Publication     

Analysis of emission characteristics of gas turbine engines with some alternative fuels

The paper concerns the comparative analysis of combustion characteristics of different alternative fuels such as Fischer-Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (FT-SPK), cryogenic methane, bioethanol, biomethanol, biobutanol, dimethyl ether, biodiesel and conventional aviation kerosene Jet-A as well as analysis of emissions of NO_x, CO, CO₂, H₂O, HNO_y (y = 2,3) and organics for gas turbine engine operating on these fuels. The analysis has shown that the usage of all considered alternative fuels results in the increase of H₂O emission, compared to kerosene-fueled combustor, and, as consequence, in the growth of water vapor supersaturation that can increase the rate of the H₂O vapor condensation and enhance the formation of contrails and cirrus clouds in the atmosphere. The usage of all considered alternative fuels except FT-SPK, cryogenic methane and dimethyl can increase the CO₂ emission compared to using of kerosene. Emission of N-containing species can be reduced upon the usage of considered alternative fuels, except dimethyl ether, for which one can expect the increase in the emissions of HNO₂ and HNO₃ approximately by 10%. The emission of CO decreases for all fuels except biodiesel. The major decrease can be achieved upon the replacement of kerosene to bioethanol.     

Energy implications of mechanical and mechanical–biological treatment compared to direct waste-to-energy

Primary energy savings potential is used to compare five residual municipal solid waste treatment systems, including configurations with mechanical (MT) and mechanical–biological (MBT) pre-treatment, which produce waste-derived fuels (RDF and SRF), biogas and/or recover additional materials for recycling, alongside a system based on conventional mass burn waste-to-energy and ash treatment. To examine the magnitude of potential savings we consider two energy efficiency levels (state-of-the-art and best available technology), the inclusion/exclusion of heat recovery (CHP vs. PP) and three different background end-use energy production systems (coal condensing electricity and natural gas heat, Nordic electricity mix and natural gas heat, and coal CHP energy quality allocation).The systems achieved net primary energy savings in a range between 34 and 140 MJ_primary/100 MJ_{input waste}, in the different scenario settings. The energy footprint of transportation needs, pre-treatment and reprocessing of recyclable materials was 3–9.5%, 1–18% and 1–8% respectively, relative to total energy savings. Mass combustion WtE achieved the highest savings in scenarios with CHP production, nonetheless, MBT-based systems had similarly high performance if SRF streams were co-combusted with coal. When RDF and SRF was only used in dedicated WtE plants, MBT-based systems totalled lower savings due to inherent system losses and additional energy costs. In scenarios without heat recovery, the biodrying MBS-based system achieved the highest savings, on the condition of SRF co-combustion. As a sensitivity scenario, alternative utilisation of SRF in cement kilns was modelled. It supported similar or higher net savings for all pre-treatment systems compared to mass combustion WtE, except when WtE CHP was possible in the first two background energy scenarios. Recovery of plastics for recycling before energy recovery increased net energy savings in most scenario variations, over those of full stream combustion. Sensitivity to assumptions regarding virgin plastic substitution was tested and was found to mostly favour plastic recovery.