Protection of Antarctic soil environments: A review of the current issues and future challenges for the Environmental Protocol

2016 marked the 25th anniversary of the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty. Terrestrial ice-free areas constitute approximately 0.18% of Antarctica, but represent the most biologically active, historically rich, and environmentally sensitive sites. Antarctic soils are easily disturbed and environmental legacies of human activities are scattered across the continent; many are remnants of the 1950s-1980s when environmental protection was less comprehensive than today. Adoption of the Environmental Protocol in 1991 represented an important and proactive shift in Antarctic governance, securing environmental protection as a fundamental tenet of the Treaty System. Twenty five years on standards of environmental management have greatly improved, yet environmental pressures are compounding. Shortcomings in the implementation of the Environmental Protocol exist due to disparities in cultural values, operational realities, and inconsistent environmental impact assessments among governments and National Antarctic Programs. Non-native species management remains underdeveloped; and there is inadequate representation of all biogeographic regions within the Protected Area system; therefore jeopardizing conservation of Antarctic biodiversity and the integrity of the soil environment. Fundamental improvements are required to address the current shortcomings and ensure effective environmental protection for the next 25 years, including: (1) increased multinational and multidisciplinary collaboration to answer targeted research questions addressing contemporary management challenges, (2) effective communication of science to policy makers and environmental managers to inform decision- making, and (3) making the mandate of long-term monitoring of the terrestrial environment a high priority for all governments signatory to the Antarctic Treaty.     

Impacts of Marine Protected Areas on Fishing Communities

Abstract: Marine protected areas (MPAs) are a popular conservation strategy, but their impacts on human welfare are poorly understood. To inform future research and policy decisions, we reviewed the scientific literature to assess MPA impacts on five indicators of human welfare: food security, resource rights, employment, community organization, and income. Following MPA establishment, food security generally remained stable or increased in older and smaller MPAs. The ability of most fishing groups to govern MPA resources changed. Increased resource rights were positively correlated with MPA zoning and compliance with MPA regulations. Small sample sizes precluded statistical tests of the impacts of MPAs on employment, community organization, and income. Our results demonstrate that MPAs shape the social well‐being and political power of fishing communities; impacts (positive and negative) vary within and among social groups; and social impacts are correlated with some—but not all—commonly hypothesized explanatory factors. Accordingly, MPAs may represent a viable strategy for enhancing food security and empowering local communities, but current practices negatively affect at least a minority of fishers. To inform policy making, further research must better document and explain variation in the positive and negative social impacts of MPAs.     

A distributional analysis of the socio-ecological and economic determinants of forest carbon stocks

Forest carbon (C) sequestration is being actively considered by several states as a way to cost-effectively comply with the forthcoming United States (US) Environmental Protection Agency’s rule that will reduce power plant C emissions by 32% of 2005 levels by 2030. However, little is known about the socio-ecological and distributional effects of such a policy. Given that C is heterogeneous across the landscape, understanding how social, economic, and ecological changes affect forest C stocks and sequestration is key for developing forest management policies that offset C emissions. Using Florida US as a case study, we use US National Forest Inventory Analysis and Census Bureau data in both linear regression and quantile regression analyses to examine the socio-ecological and economic determinants of forest C stocks and its relationship with differing communities. Quantile regression findings demonstrate nonlinearity in the effects of key determinants, which highlight the limitations of regularly used mean-based regression analyses. We also found that forest basal area, site quality, stand size, and stand age are significant ecological predictors of carbon stocks, with a positive and increasing effect on upper quantiles where C stocks are greater. The effect of education was generally positive and mostly significant at upper quantiles, while the effects of income and locations with predominantly minority residents (as compared to whites) were negative. Upper quantiles were also affected by population age. Our findings underscore the importance of considering the broader socio-ecological and economic implications of compliance strategies that target the management of forests for carbon sequestration and other ecosystem services.     

The perceived psychological distance of climate change impacts and its influence on support for adaptation policy

Factors influencing support for climate mitigation policy in the United States are well researched, however, research regarding individuals’ support for climate adaptation policy is relatively sparse. This study explores how an individual’s perception of climate change impacts may influence their support for adaptation actions. Results of a survey of the U.S. public (n = 653) indicates that individuals who believe climate change impacts are unlikely to happen or will primarily affect other people in other places are less likely to be concerned about climate change impacts and less likely to support climate adaptation. However, an individual’s support for climate change adaptation measures is not influenced by their perception of when climate change impacts will occur even when taking into account concern for climate impacts. Critical for policy-makers, a belief that climate adaptation measures will not be effective attenuates the relationship between psychological distance, concern for climate change impacts, and adaptation policy measures. Our results indicate that to effectively communicate about climate change, policy-makers should emphasize that: (i) climate change impacts are occurring, (ii) that their constituents are being affected now, or will be in the future, and (iii) communicate that adaptation measures can be effective in addressing risks associated with climate change impacts.     

Exergoeconomic Environmental Optimization of Piston-Prop Aircraft Engines

In this study, exergy, exergoeconomic, exergoenvironmental analyses, and exergoeconomic environmental optimization are applied to a four-cylinder, spark ignition, naturally aspirated and air-cooled piston-prop aircraft engine in the cruise phase of flight for the first time to the best of the authors` knowledge. Here, three piston-prop aircraft engine parameters (altitude, air–fuel ratio (AF), and rated power setting (PS)) are selected for optimization purposes. All exergy, exergoeconomic, and exergoenvironmental values are calculated first. These values are then optimized to find the best results of all analyses. The best altitude, AF ratio, and PS values are finally found while the maximum exergy efficiency, the minimum product specific environmental impact, and the minimum average unit fuel exergy cost are obtained. The best results of optimization indicated that the maximum exergy efficiency varied between 19.54% and 19.80%, the minimum unit fuel exergy cost ranged from 126.30 $/GJ to 127.23 $/GJ, and the minimum specific environmental impact of production was in the range of 8.70–9.59 mPts/MJ. Based on the results obtained, for ensuring the optimum conditions, the low AF ratios and the low-altitude flight at high rated power settings have to be selected.     

黑龙江、松花江航道疏浚工程对水生生物环境影响研究

针对黑龙江、松花江航道疏浚工程对水生生物环境影响问题,提出了疏浚工程对水生生物的影响,包括对浮游植物的影响、对浮游动物的影响、对底栖动物的影响和对水生植物的影响,将产生泥沙、悬浮物、噪音、底质改变及机械废水、固体垃圾等,进而对鱼类资源的影响分析,包括施工噪音对鱼类的影响,如对鱼类栖息地的影响、对鱼类摄食生长的影响、对鱼类产卵行为的影响、悬浮物对鱼类生存的影响、对鱼类卵、苗的影响和对鱼类洄游通道的影响。     

Comparison of vegetation conditions along two backcountry trails in Mount Robson Provincial Park, British Columbia (Canada)

Vegetation conditions, i.e., plant cover, species richness, and the presence of exotic species, are compared along a high-use trail (Berg Lake Trail--BLT) and a low use trail (Mt. Fitzwilliam Trail--FWT) in Canada's Mt. Robson Provincial Park. We established 71 paired quadrats (1 m x 1 m), and assessed the amount of vegetation cover and species richness by four main lifeforms, i.e., woody species, herbaceous species, ferns, and moss, lichen and fungi. The following hypotheses were tested: (1) differences exist between control and trailside quadrats in vegetation cover, species richness and floristic diversity, and (2) differences exist between the high and low-use trails in the above-mentioned three parameters. Results show that for the majority of variables the differences between the control and trailside quadrats are statistically not significant. Variables showing significant differences are relative vegetation cover (for BLT only), exposed soil (BLT and FWT), herbaceous cover (FWT), moss, lichen and fungi cover (BLT), overall species richness (BLT), and herbaceous species richness (BLT). Ruderal and exotic species are present but only on trailside quadrats of the high-use trail. Results indicate that the Park administration's strategy to disperse use in the Mt. Robson Provincial Park should be examined critically, and some guidelines for acceptability of changes should be developed.     

Regional environmental assessment (REA) and local Agenda 21 implementation

The implementation of sustainable development requires several support instruments. One of the major instruments in the Rio Declaration to support this process has been environmental assessment that has been given considerable emphasis as to its potential ability to help achieve more sustainable forms of development. Regional environmental assessment (REA) has shown to be effective in supporting local sustainable development process. Selected environmental assessment methods have been␣used to improve the REA exercise and provide reliable data for decision-making not only to correct environmental problems due to past unsustainable social-economic developments but also help local governments to implement Agenda 21 (AG21) plans and projects.     

Proliferation of nonconforming land uses in agricultural envelope of urban Hong Kong

Until the late 1960s rural Hong Kong had an attractive rustic landscape and a small but active farming population. The recent widespread agricultural decline provided opportunities for urban-oriented activities to invade, mainly as open storage and workshops unsuitable in city areas. Rapid container-port expansion and cross-border China trade generate demands for cheap and accessible land for non-conforming uses (NCU). Rural development control and land-use planning are inherently weak, and formal provision for such uses is lacking. An unfavorable landmark court judgement allows landowners to degrade the countryside. The activities have caused acute environmental problems, telescoped into a small territory, including visual blight, pollution, drainage blockage, loss of wetland habitats, and increased flooding hazard. The distinction between urban and rural has been blurred in the destruction of the valuable countryside heritage. An interim legislative amendment fails to stop unauthorized conversion of farmland. In the long term, an integrated and comprehensive rural planning strategy to conserve inherent elements, as well as accommodating selected urban spillover in properly located and serviced sites, is needed.     

ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF GUIDED WHITEWATER RAFTING: A STUDY OF FIVE RIVERS1

ABSTRACT: This paper presents estimates of the statewide economic impacts of guided whitewater rafting on five rivers in six states: the Nantahala (North Carolina), Gauley (West Virginia), Kennebec (Maine), Middle Fork of the Salmon (Idaho), and Chattooga (Georgia-South Carolina). Except for the Chattooga and Middle Fork, rafting is dependent on upstream dam releases. Guide fees range from about $15 per trip on the Nantahala to over $1,000 on the Middle Fork. Economic impacts per nonresident 1000 visitors increase along with length of the rafting trip and remoteness of the river. Total industrial output per 1000 nonresident visitors ranged from $95,000 on the Nantahala to over $2.5 million on the Middle Fork. However, because of differences in annual visitation levels, total impacts were greatest at the Nantahala, at over $14 million in 1993. Multipliers for all economic measures were relatively consistent over the rivers. Employment multipliers (Type III) ranged from 1.67 to 1.90, income multipliers from 2.0 to 2.4, and industrial output multipliers from 2.1 to 2.5.