Developmental Processes, Changing Lifestyle and Traditional Wisdom: Analyses from Western Himalaya

Traditional knowledge and practices are important in prudent resource use and biodiversity conservation. The implications of modernization and changing lifestyle are discussed in the context of agriculture and resource use, the two sectors in which maximum modernization has occurred. The information was gathered through observations and structured interviews over three years (July 1996 to July 1999) of field work in the western Himalaya. It was observed that forest based subsistence agriculture has given way to the market dependant cash crop cultivation. That apart from loss of genetic diversity, has also resulted in the degradation of forests. The use of wild plants in the day-to-day activities has also declined and dependence on high value market products has increased. Currently, wild plants are used only if no other cheap substitute is available in the market or if the use is economically beneficial to the people. Thus, the knowledge gathered through ages of experience is eroding because of the activities geared for short-term economic benefits which, in long run, may not be sustainable.     

Community structure of zooplankton across environmental variables in a high-altitude lake of central Himalayas,India

We determined seasonal and spatial variation of zooplankton and their correlation with environment variables in a subtropical lake of the Himalayas. Thirty-eight species of zooplankton were identified, of which, 38.0% belonged to rotifera, 26.3% to cladocera, and 15.7% to copepoda. Nitrogen nutrients, total organic matter (TOM), and clay particles significantly influenced on the distribution pattern of zooplankton. Non-metric multidimensional scaling analysis showed homogeneous assemblages of dominant zooplankton species except Chydorus gibbus which has wider range of niche partitioning. Turbidity formed by suspended materials facilitated better avoidance of larger zooplankton like Daphnia similis from predators. Sedimentary silt particles influenced on the assemblages of sensitive species such as Tropocyclops prasinus, Asplanchna priodonta and Colurella obtuse. Changes within the land-use pattern in the catchment of the central Himalayan lakes either directly or indirectly impact on the distribution of zooplankton community.     

Evaluation of fodder quality of straw of different landraces of rice (Oryza sativa L.) under cultivation in the Kumaun Region of Indian Central Himalaya

Thirty landraces of rice collected from various locations, across an elevational gradient (1150–2400 m asl), in Kumaun, Central Himalaya and VL-206 (a high-yielding variety recommended for rainfed mountain area) have been evaluated, both in terms of quantity and nutritional quality of straw. Data were collected to estimate the percentage share of fodder in the overall biomass produced. The total biomass harvested at maturity was taken as productivity. In view of the severe scarcity of fodder in hill regions, particularly during winter months, straw was also examined for quality-linked biochemical parameters and dry matter digestibility (DMD) of fodder. The Crude Protein (CP) values ranged from 2.21% (Nandhani) to 6.33% (Dalbadal), and in saceo DMD (nylonbag technique) was highest in Kaladur (48.84%) and lowest in Kantolia (32.25%). While the CP in VL206 was within the range recorded for various landraces (3.61%), DMD value (27.29%) was lower than that of all the landraces tested. In saceo DMD data indicate that the fodder quality of landraces is better than that of the introduced variety. The values for neutral detergent fibre (NDF) ranged from 63.64% (Sabhawati) to 78.46% (Chhotiya) among the rainfed landraces, while in the irrigated landraces, Thapchini had more NDF (87.50 %), as compared to Kantolia (73.88%) and VL206 (74.91%). Values for the acid detergent fibre (ADF) varied from 42.70% (Danbasmati) to 54.58% (Nandhani) in the rainfed group; ADF was slightly higher in Thapchini (49.41%) in comparison to Kantolia (47.19) and VL206 had the highest (56.80%) ADF content. The observed differences with respect to straw productivity, chemical composition and in saceo DMD in various landraces, even when grown under similar conditions at one place, clearly indicate the richness of the gene pool of rice being maintained, through cultivation, in the Kumaun hills. It may be mentioned that agriculture in the hills is biomass based, and livestock form an integral component of subsistence farming.     

Relationships between runoff and land degradation on non-cultivated land in the Middle Hills of Nepal

SUMMARY

Rainfall-surface water runoff relationships have been examined for 912 rainfall events during the 1992 and 1993 monsoon seasons on 15 erosion plots on a variety of non-cultivated land uses in the Middle Hills, Nepal. Vegetation cover and type examined ranged from grassland and relatively undisturbed mixed broadleaf forest to subtropical Sal forest, in various states of degradation, and bare ground. Runoff was frequently generated on most plots and often by relatively small rainfall amounts (less than 5 mm) and low rainfall intensities (3 mm/h). Ground cover and canopy cover were significant factors in determining amounts of runoff. Runoff coefficients ranged from 1–2% under grassland and mixed broadleaf forest to 57–64% on the bare sites. Coefficients for Sal forest were between these two extremes; specific values depended on the level of degradation induced by human activity. The most degraded forest sites experienced runoff coefficients of 33%. Ground cover beneath the trees, especially leaf litter, was more effective in reducing runoff than the amount of canopy cover. Canopy cover was more effective during the less intense storms but was ineffective when the rainfall intensity was high. The results suggest that a minimum ground cover of 60% will keep runoff to within 10% of total rainfall amounts for most normal monsoons in the Middle Hills. This will also reduce the risk of gullying and surface soil erosion. It is the nature of the forest that is important and not its total area. In the study area, although the total area under forest had not changed, some of the forest had become more degraded with a corresponding increase in mean runoff rates. Increased runoff can occur even if the area under forest increases. Estimates of levels of degradation based solely on changing forest areas are likely to be inaccurate.     

Diversity,endemism and economic potential of wild edible plants of Indian Himalaya

SUMMARY

The rich plant diversity of the Indian Himalaya is utilized by the native communities in various forms as medicine, edible/food, fodder, fuel, timber, agricultural tools, etc. Among these, wild edible plants form an important source as a supplement/substitute food in times of scarcity for native communities. Because land holdings are small and subsistence agriculture prevails, the natives gather many wild plants for food. This paper presents an inventory of wild edible plants of Indian Himalaya used by local communities. Over 675 wild plant species, representing 384 genera and 149 families, are used as food/edible and their various parts are either consumed raw, roasted, boiled, fried, cooked or in the form of oil, spice, seasoning material, jams, pickles, etc. The species were analysed for diversity in different phytogeographical provinces, altitudinal distribution, endemism, origin and potentials. West Himalaya shows the highest diversity (50.96%) of edible plants and East Himalaya the maximum number of endemics (18 taxa) and wild relatives of economic plants (39 taxa). Mass scale propagation, dissemination of information packages to local inhabitants to ensure that wild edibles remain as a resource for income generation, and strategies for conservation and management are recommended.     

Rehabilitation of degraded community lands for sustainable development in Himalaya: a case study in Garhwal Himalaya,India

SUMMARY

An approach to the rehabilitation of degraded community lands built on people's perceptions and traditional knowledge was developed, implemented on a small scale (6 ha plot), and evaluated in terms of economic and ecological costs and benefits over a period of 5 years in a mid-altitude (1200 m) village of Garhwal Himalaya. Rehabilitation comprised establishment of water harvesting tanks, organic management of soil, agroforestry (native multipurpose trees t traditional crops), and decision making by the whole village community. Costs and benefits under irrigated and unirrigated conditions were compared. The total cost of establishing the irrigated agroforestry system was 1.23 fold that of the unirrigated one, whereas the total benefit was 2.09 fold. The average standing above-ground biomass of the 4-year-old plantation in the irrigated agroforestry system was 11.69 t/ha compared to 8.34 t/ha in the unirrigated system. Improvement in soil properties was more pronounced in the irrigated system than in the unirrigated one. Nutrient input, an input derived largely from forest biomass, in the unirrigated system was nearly 3 times higher than that in the irrigated system. It is concluded that, considering the local and national/regional/global interests in an integrated manner, agroforestry incorporating water management would be a more effective option for rehabilitating degraded community lands than the afforestation currently being attempted by the government in the mid-altitudes of Indian Himalaya.     

People's Perception About Participatory Developmental Programs: Lessons from the Mountain Risk Engineering Program in the Indian Central Himalaya

The Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) is suffering from environmental degradation due to population pressure and infra-structural needs. This is coupled with a natural setting, which creates problems of accelerated soil erosion and mass wasting. In view of these environmental difficulties and the growing concern for effective restoration, there has become an urgent need for multi-disciplinary coordinated improvement schemes. The mitigation of risk arising from hazardous mass wasting processes, through a careful and systematic approach, has helped in the development of the concept of Mountain Risk Engineering (MRE). The MRE practices involve an integrated approach to solving the infra-structural engineering problems of hilly and mountainous areas through environmentally conscious cost-effective and site-specific designs. However, the role of people's participation is extremely crucial for the success of such programs. This paper analyzes the perception of the local people about the approaches adopted in MRE participatory developmental programs and throws light on the intricacies of peoples' participation.     

Changing scenario of Himalayan agroecosystems: loss of agrobiodiversity, an indicator of environmental change in Central Himalaya, India

Environmental, biological, socio-cultural and economic variations in the Himalayas have led to the evolution of diverse and unique traditional agroecosystems, crop species, and livestock, which help the traditional mountain farming societies to sustain themselves. During the recent past, as a result of rapid changes in land use caused by socio-cultural and economic changes and various environmental perturbations, the agrobiodiversity of the Central Himalayan agroecosystems has changed steadily. A recent survey conducted in 150 different villages located along an elevated transect of the Alaknanda catchment of the Central Himalaya revealed that over a period of two decades (1970–74 and 1990–94) the cultivated area under many traditional crops had declined significantly. A micro-level study carried out in 30 villages revealed that a series of changes had occurred in land use practices over a period of 25–30 years.The loss of agrobiodiversity and the changing socio-cultural and economic dimensions and their impacts on the sustainability of Himalayan agroecosystems are emerging as major causes of concern at local/regional/national scale, and appropriate options to meet these challenges are discussed in this paper.     

Landslides, risk and decision-making in Kinnaur District: bridging the gap between science and public opinion

In November 1989 a major landslide destroyed the link road to the village of Sapni in Kinnaur District of Himachal Pradesh in the Indian Himalaya. Although aware of the risk of further landslide activity, the community has campaigned successfully for reconstruction of the road. Decisions of this kind take place at the local level, through village institutions and open debate, with good feedback between villages and district government authorities. In this way a balance is established between meeting more immediate needs (such as domestic water supply, irrigation, road access) and taking acceptable risks. Using the Sapni landslide as a case study, this paper explores the issue of 'acceptable risk', and looks at the existing strategy for risk and disaster reduction in the district.     

Wild fruits as a contribution to sustainable rural development: a case study from the Garhwal Himalaya

Garhwal Himalaya is an important source of wild fruit species. These wild fruit trees grow abundantly across an altitudinal gradient of Himalaya and the majority of them bear fruits during summer. Fruit varieties are eaten raw by the local inhabitants of the region and whilst they are a rich source of protein, carbohydrate, fat and other elements, compared to cultivated fruits, they have not yet been considered as a source of alternative food products. About 13 potentially exploitable species of wild fruits and one semi-domesticated species having high potential for exploitation were selected for study; six (Aegle marmelos, Berberis asiatica, Hippophae rhamnoides, Myrica nagi, Rubus ellipticus and Prunus armeniaca) were examined in detail for their economic potential. Among the wild fruits, Hippophae rhamnoides was found to be economically efficient, followed by Aegle marmelos, Rubus ellipticus and Myrica nagi, respectively. Prunus armeniaca, a semi-domesticated and less utilized fruit of the higher Himalaya, provides better economic returns on an annual basis. The authors have recently made an attempt to utilize these wild fruits as a source of income, particularly for poor rural inhabitants and unemployed youths of the region by making a variety of edible products such as jam, jelly, juice, squash, sauce, etc. The enterprise was demonstrated to the people to encourage them to adopt it in the form of a small village-level cottage industry. The present paper discusses the distribution, botany, phenology, yield, ethnobotany, and uses of these species, and the cost-benefit analysis of food products prepared from them.