A global assessment of the social and conservation outcomes of protected areas

Protected areas (PAs) are a key strategy for protecting biological resources, but they vary considerably in their effectiveness and are frequently reported as having negative impacts on local people. This has contributed to a divisive and unresolved debate concerning the compatibility of environmental and socioeconomic development goals. Elucidating the relationship between positive and negative social impacts and conservation outcomes of PAs is key for the development of more effective and socially just conservation. We conducted a global meta‐analysis on 165 PAs using data from 171 published studies. We assessed how PAs affect the well‐being of local people, the factors associated with these impacts, and crucially the relationship between PAs’ conservation and socioeconomic outcomes. Protected areas associated with positive socioeconomic outcomes were more likely to report positive conservation outcomes. Positive conservation and socioeconomic outcomes were more likely to occur when PAs adopted comanagement regimes, empowered local people, reduced economic inequalities, and maintained cultural and livelihood benefits. Whereas the strictest regimes of PA management attempted to exclude anthropogenic influences to achieve biological conservation objectives, PAs that explicitly integrated local people as stakeholders tended to be more effective at achieving joint biological conservation and socioeconomic development outcomes. Strict protection may be needed in some circumstances, yet our results demonstrate that conservation and development objectives can be synergistic and highlight management strategies that increase the probability of maximizing both conservation performance and development outcomes of PAs.     

Offsetting the Impacts of Mining to Achieve No Net Loss of Native Vegetation

Offsets are a novel conservation tool, yet using them to achieve no net loss of biodiversity is challenging. This is especially true when using conservation offsets (i.e., protected areas) because achieving no net loss requires avoiding equivalent loss. Our objective was to determine if offsetting the impacts of mining achieves no net loss of native vegetation in Brazil's largest iron mining region. We used a land‐use change model to simulate deforestation by mining to 2020; developed a model to allocate conservation offsets to the landscape under 3 scenarios (baseline, no new offsets; current practice, like‐for‐like [by vegetation type] conservation offsetting near the impact site; and threat scenario, like‐for‐like conservation offsetting of highly threatened vegetation); and simulated nonmining deforestation to 2020 for each scenario to quantify avoided deforestation achieved with offsets. Mines cleared 3570 ha of native vegetation by 2020. Under a 1:4 offset ratio, mining companies would be required to conserve >14,200 ha of native vegetation, doubling the current extent of protected areas in the region. Allocating offsets under current practice avoided deforestation equivalent to 3% of that caused by mining, whereas allocating under the threat scenario avoided 9%. Current practice failed to achieve no net loss because offsets did not conserve threatened vegetation. Explicit allocation of offsets to threatened vegetation also failed because the most threatened vegetation was widely dispersed across the landscape, making conservation logistically difficult. To achieve no net loss with conservation offsets requires information on regional deforestation trajectories and the distribution of threatened vegetation. However, in some regions achieving no net loss through conservation may be impossible. In these cases, other offsetting activities, such as revegetation, will be required. Compensación de los Impactos de la Minería para Obtener Ninguna Pérdida Neta de la Vegetación Nativa     

Selection of Multiple Umbrella Species for Functional and Taxonomic Diversity to Represent Urban Biodiversity

Surrogates, such as umbrella species, are commonly used to reduce the complexity of quantifying biodiversity for conservation purposes. The presence of umbrella species is often indicative of high taxonomic diversity; however, functional diversity is now recognized as an important metric for biodiversity and thus should be considered when choosing umbrella species. We identified umbrella species associated with high taxonomic and functional biodiversity in urban areas in Switzerland. We analyzed 39,752 individuals of 574 animal species from 96 study plots and 1397 presences of 262 plant species from 58 plots. Thirty‐one biodiversity measures of 7 taxonomic groups (plants, spiders, bees, ground beetles, lady bugs, weevils and birds) were included in within‐ and across‐taxa analyses. Sixteen measures were taxonomical (species richness and species diversity), whereas 15 were functional (species traits including mobility, resource use, and reproduction). We used indicator value analysis to identify umbrella species associated with single or multiple biodiversity measures. Many umbrella species were indicators of high biodiversity within their own taxonomic group (from 33.3% in weevils to 93.8% in birds), to a lesser extent they were indicators across taxa. Principal component analysis revealed that umbrella species for multiple measures of biodiversity represented different aspects of biodiversity, especially with respect to measures of taxonomic and functional diversity. Thus, even umbrella species for multiple measures of biodiversity were complementary in the biodiversity aspects they represented. Thus, the choice of umbrella species based solely on taxonomic diversity is questionable and may not represent biodiversity comprehensively. Our results suggest that, depending on conservation priorities, managers should choose multiple and complementary umbrella species to assess the state of biodiversity. Selección de Múltiples Especies Paraguas para la Diversidad Funcional y Taxonómica para Representar la Biodiversidad Urbana     

A robust nonparametric method for quantifying undetected extinctions

How many species have gone extinct in modern times before being described by science? To answer this question, and thereby get a full assessment of humanity's impact on biodiversity, statistical methods that quantify undetected extinctions are required. Such methods have been developed recently, but they are limited by their reliance on parametric assumptions; specifically, they assume the pools of extant and undetected species decay exponentially, whereas real detection rates vary temporally with survey effort and real extinction rates vary with the waxing and waning of threatening processes. We devised a new, nonparametric method for estimating undetected extinctions. As inputs, the method requires only the first and last date at which each species in an ensemble was recorded. As outputs, the method provides estimates of the proportion of species that have gone extinct, detected, or undetected and, in the special case where the number of undetected extant species in the present day is assumed close to zero, of the absolute number of undetected extinct species. The main assumption of the method is that the per‐species extinction rate is independent of whether a species has been detected or not. We applied the method to the resident native bird fauna of Singapore. Of 195 recorded species, 58 (29.7%) have gone extinct in the last 200 years. Our method projected that an additional 9.6 species (95% CI 3.4, 19.8) have gone extinct without first being recorded, implying a true extinction rate of 33.0% (95% CI 31.0%, 36.2%). We provide R code for implementing our method. Because our method does not depend on strong assumptions, we expect it to be broadly useful for quantifying undetected extinctions.     

湖南省生物多样性现状调查与评价

在对湖南省生物多样性现状进行调查的基础上,采用包括物种丰富度、生态系统类型多样性、植被垂直层谱的完整性、物种特有性、外来物种入侵度5个评价指标的生物多样性综合评价方法,以县(区)为单位,对湖南省125个县(区)进行了生物多样性评价. 结果表明:有51个县(区)的生物多样性状况为“高”,有53个县(区)为“中”,有12个县(区)为“一般”,有9个县(区)为“低”. 评价结果与湖南省生物多样性的实际情况基本相符,基本能反映出湖南省植物多样性的整体分布状况.      

基于适宜性分析的辽河保护区土地利用规划

基于保护河流完整性原则,同时考虑满足人类需求,利用适宜性分析方法对辽河保护区进行了土地利用规划。通过分析河流纵向物理特征和横向结构,将辽河保护区纵向分为8段,横向分为4个区。利用适宜性分析并结合河流横向特征,对辽河保护区的土地进行规划,共有用地类型11类,按面积由大到小分别为河岸带生物多样性用地、辽河口湿地用地、生产用地、入干水质控制用地、大坝防洪安全用地、河道用地、高生态功能湿地用地、险工险段低风险用地、生态水面景观用地、水库湿地用地和城市景观用地,分别占总面积的38.71%、22.56%、12.17%、7.85%、4.20%、3.62%、3.22%、2.79%、1.89%、1.88%和1.12%。近80%的土地用于与构建水生生境相关的土地利用类型,体现了保护区生态保护的功能定位。     

考虑地形与生物多样性的InVEST模型及其在县域生物多样性安全格局分析中的应用

县域尺度生物多样性安全格局精细评估可为区域生物多样性保护规划、实施与管理提供科学参考。以粤北山区翁源县为例,采用InVEST生境质量模型,结合区域地形与生物多样性特征,以生境质量指数、地形与生物多样性综合指数为评价指标,开展区域生物多样性安全格局综合评估。结果表明：翁源县整体生境质量指数（HQI）较高,尤其在人为扰动较弱的水系和林区最为明显,生境质量指数较低区集中在建设用地、耕地等人类活动影响强烈区域;地形多样性综合指数（TDCI）与地形起伏度和地形坡度位置指数分布格局较为一致,而与地形湿度指数相对差值分布格局相反;生物多样性指数（BCI）分布格局受到香农-威纳指数物种多样性本底及生物多样性丰富度、人类足迹指数、生物多样性重要度与植被总覆盖度的交互影响;生物多样性综合安全格局指数与HQI、BCI及TDCI分布有较好的一致性,低风险/低脆弱（高安全）区集中在县域内城镇建设用地、交通水利和耕地等人类活动强烈区,高风险/高脆弱（低安全）区主要分布在县域北部、西北部、东南部、东北部自然保护和饮用水源等人类活动干扰微弱区。通过与区域生态保护红线等相关资料进行验证与分析,改进优化后的评估结果更能精细和客观地反映研究区生物多样性安全格局。

     

生物多样性导向的再生水补给型城市河道水生态修复效果

在再生水补给型河道开展水生态修复并监测分析其效果,有助于提升再生水补给河道的生态健康水平。在北京市萧太后河老河道开展全营养级生态修复并进行为期1年的监测,通过生物群落结构、生物多样性指数、水质分析水生态系统变化。结果表明,虽然试验区经历了水质恶化、水量剧减的双重冲击,但河道水生态、水质仍表现出明显改善。生态修复实施后浮游动物、底栖动物、鱼类、鸟类的物种丰富度分别上升为修复前的6、2、3、2倍。浮游动物、底栖动物、鱼类优势种数量均明显增加,且表现出耐污型向健康指示型的变化。底栖动物、鱼类、鸟类的Shannon-Wiener多样性指数、Pielou均匀度指数、Margalef丰富度指数均有上升;鸟类的优势种表现出季节性变化且已出现猛禽。项目区内总磷浓度平均比项目区外低35%,氨氮浓度平均低31%,总氮浓度平均低30%。综合来看,结构完整的水生态系统具有抵抗外界水质、水量冲击的韧性,且能够起到良好的水质改善效果。各生物群落的多样性指数、群落结构均对水质变化有明显的反馈和指示作用,多个生物多样性指数的综合表征效果更全面、更客观。

     

自然保护区生物多样性经济价值类型及其评估方法

在分析生物多样性经济价值类型的基础上探讨了自然保护区生物多样性经济价值的类型和内涵,并将其分为直接实物价值、直接非实物服务价值、生态功能间接价值和非使用类价值（包括存在价值、遗产价值和选择价值）,进而提出评估这些价值的方法。     

Cu2+对活性污泥代谢及群落结构的影响

为探究微量Cu2+对微生物代谢产物及群落结构的影响,采用序批式反应器(SBR),以含Cu2+原水作用下活性污泥为研究对象,分析不同质量浓度Cu2对胞外聚合物(EPS)和溶解性代谢产物(SMP)的影响,并通过聚合酶链式反应-变性梯度凝胶电泳(PCR-DGGE)技术分析总细菌在不同质量浓度微量Cu2+驯化前后的群落结构.结果表明,活性污泥的EPS质量浓度受Cu2+的影响呈波动下降趋势,反应中后期趋于稳定,稳定区间与Cu2+质量浓度成反比.Cu2+加入反应体系后会造成SMP质量浓度短暂下降,随后微生物释放SMP来缓解环境压力,SMP质量浓度有所回升;中后期由于Cu2+积累导致细胞自溶、释放SMP,SMP质量浓度突增,增长幅度与Cu2+质量浓度成正比.不同质量浓度Cu2+会造成特定菌群的消亡,还会促进耐受力强的微生物成为优势菌种.含Cu2+原水会使微生物量和群落多样性降低,当Cu2+质量浓度为3.5 mg/L时SDI由1.92下降至1.23,而由于新优势菌种的产生,Cu2+质量浓度为5.0 mg/L时SDI有所回升.