Socio-economic predictors of domestic wood use in an Atlantic forest area (north-east Brazil): a tool for directing conservation efforts

Given the excessive use pressure on forests, characterisation of the major users of forest resources can help guide conservation efforts. This study examines whether socio-economic variables explain domestic wood use in an area of Atlantic forest in the community of Três Ladeiras (Pernambuco, north-east Brazil). Socio-economic data were collected from 62 households, and geometric measurements of wood products in each household were taken to calculate the wood volume. An informant in each household indicated the average replacement time for each type of wood use. Data were analysed for static volume (wood volume found at the time of the visit) and dynamic volume (rate of wood consumption, calculated as the ratio between volume and replacement time). Multiple regression analyses were performed to determine the relationships between wood volume (static and dynamic) and the number of species used; independent variables including monthly family income, number of residents, average age of heads of the household, age of oldest household member, average residence time of heads of the household, average education level of heads of the household and education level of the most educated household member. Monthly income was inversely related to the static wood volume (adjusted R ² = 17.6%, p < 0.001), rate of wood consumption (adjusted R ² = 23.0%, p < 0.001) and number of species used (adjusted R ² = 22.3%, p < 0.001) and was the most important predictive variable for these three outcomes. Other factors such as average education level and average age of heads of the household were also explanatory variables of the total rate of wood consumption, as these two variables, together with monthly family income, explain 31.3% of the total dynamic volume. Given the high importance of income in our study, we suggest that future conservation strategies give special attention to the poorest members of the community.     

‘Development’ at the crossroads: biodiversity and land-use tensions on South Africa’s Wild Coast

In South Africa, extreme rural poverty often geographically overlaps with areas of high and important biodiversity. Attempts to bring about land-based poverty reduction projects in such areas tends to trigger tensions among stakeholders purporting to be concerned about local people’s welfare, as well as the environment. Using discursive document analysis and semi-structured interviews, the paper discusses a case study of the Wild Coast, an area celebrated for its high biodiversity and ‘beauty’, which reveals that a tension among environmental non-government organisations, government agencies and the private sector, on the best development option, exacerbates the threats to local livelihood options and biodiversity conservation.     

Technological advance and the conservation of resources

SUMMARY

This paper reviews the nature of technological changes in forestry and the forest industries and their impacts on forest conservation and deforestation. While noting that technological changes have made available substantially more forest products to consumers, with higher quality and/or at lower prices than would otherwise have been possible, not all impacts have been positive.

The authors take a long-term perspective of how changes in technologies, markets and transportation are likely to affect the management and conservation of tropical forests. The paper defines a research challenge to direct and harness science and innovation towards increasing the productivity of forests and reducing the environmental costs associated with forest industries and products.     

Biodiversity status of a protected area in West Himalaya: Askot Wildlife Sanctuary

SUMMARY

Biodiversity of a protected area of West Himalaya (Askot Wildlife Sanctuary) was studied and analysed for landscape, faunal and floral diversity. The forest and pasture land, ideal habitats for the flora and fauna, covered nearly 52% and 12%, respectively, of total reported area. Among the fauna Himalayan musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster), thar (Himitragus jemlahicus), snow leopard (Panthera uncia), koklas (Pucrassia macrolophas), monal (Lophophorus impejanus) and snow cock (Tetragalus tibetanus) are threatened species. Plant diversity is represented by 1262 species of vascular plants (Angiosperm 1112, Gymnosperm 7, Pteridophytes 143 taxa). Diversity of the species within families, genera, habitats, communities and along vertical gradient zone was analysed. Maximum diversity existed in the family Orchidaceae (120 taxa), genera Polystichum (13 taxa), altitude zone (1001–2000 m; 860 taxa), habitat (forest; 623 taxa) and community (Banj oak: 92 taxa). Seventy-one families were found to be monotypic. Species were further analysed for ethnobotanical use (medicine: 70, edible: 55, fodder: 115, fuel: 31, house building: 13 etc.), domesticated diversity (crops: 19, vegetables: 26, fruits: 16), agroforestry or marginal, threatened and endemic diversity. Similarity in species composition within the habitats indicated maximum similarity in areas of shrubberies and alpine meadows/ slopes (71.65%) and exposed open/grassy slopes and shady moist places (47.32%). 432 (34.2%) taxa are native to Indian Himalaya of which 24 are endemic and 235 are near endemics. 65.8% of taxa are represented in the neighbouring areas and other regions of the globe. Ten taxa occurring in the Sanctuary have been already recorded in the Red Data Book of Indian Plants. Conservation and management of species is focused.     

Incorporating Uncertainty of Management Costs in Sensitivity Analyses of Matrix Population Models

The importance of accounting for economic costs when making environmental‐management decisions subject to resource constraints has been increasingly recognized in recent years. In contrast, uncertainty associated with such costs has often been ignored. We developed a method, on the basis of economic theory, that accounts for the uncertainty in population‐management decisions. We considered the case where, rather than taking fixed values, model parameters are random variables that represent the situation when parameters are not precisely known. Hence, the outcome is not precisely known either. Instead of maximizing the expected outcome, we maximized the probability of obtaining an outcome above a threshold of acceptability. We derived explicit analytical expressions for the optimal allocation and its associated probability, as a function of the threshold of acceptability, where the model parameters were distributed according to normal and uniform distributions. To illustrate our approach we revisited a previous study that incorporated cost‐efficiency analyses in management decisions that were based on perturbation analyses of matrix population models. Incorporating derivations from this study into our framework, we extended the model to address potential uncertainties. We then applied these results to 2 case studies: management of a Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) population and conservation of an olive ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) population. For low aspirations, that is, when the threshold of acceptability is relatively low, the optimal strategy was obtained by diversifying the allocation of funds. Conversely, for high aspirations, the budget was directed toward management actions with the highest potential effect on the population. The exact optimal allocation was sensitive to the choice of uncertainty model. Our results highlight the importance of accounting for uncertainty when making decisions and suggest that more effort should be placed on understanding the distributional characteristics of such uncertainty. Our approach provides a tool to improve decision making.     

Associations of Grassland Bird Communities with Black‐Tailed Prairie Dogs in the North American Great Plains

Colonial burrowing herbivores can modify vegetation structure, create belowground refugia, and generate landscape heterogeneity, thereby affecting the distribution and abundance of associated species. Black‐tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) are such a species, and they may strongly affect the abundance and composition of grassland bird communities. We examined how prairie dog colonies in the North American Great Plains affect bird species and community composition. Areas occupied by prairie dogs, characterized by low percent cover of grass, high percent cover of bare soil, and low vegetation height and density, supported a breeding bird community that differed substantially from surrounding areas that lacked prairie dogs. Bird communities on colony sites had significantly greater densities of large‐bodied carnivores (Burrowing Owls [Athene cunicularia], Mountain Plovers, [Charadrius montanus], and Killdeer [Charadrius vociferus]) and omnivores consisting of Horned Larks (Eremophila alpestris) and McCown's Longspurs (Rhynchophanes mccownii) than bird communities off colony sites. Bird communities off colony sites were dominated by small‐bodied insectivorous sparrows (Ammodramus spp.) and omnivorous Lark Buntings (Calamospiza melanocorys), Vesper Sparrows (Pooecetes gramineus), and Lark Sparrows (Chondestes grammacus). Densities of 3 species of conservation concern and 1 game species were significantly higher on colony sites than off colony sites, and the strength of prairie dog effects was consistent across the northern Great Plains. Vegetation modification by prairie dogs sustains a diverse suite of bird species in these grasslands. Collectively, our findings and those from previous studies show that areas in the North American Great Plains with prairie dog colonies support higher densities of at least 9 vertebrate species than sites without colonies. Prairie dogs affect habitat for these species through multiple pathways, including creation of belowground refugia, supply of prey for specialized predators, modification of vegetation structure within colonies, and increased landscape heterogeneity. Asociaciones de Comunidades de Aves de Pastizales con Perros de la Pradera en la Gran Llanura de Norte América     

Connectivity Planning to Address Climate Change

As the climate changes, human land use may impede species from tracking areas with suitable climates. Maintaining connectivity between areas of different temperatures could allow organisms to move along temperature gradients and allow species to continue to occupy the same temperature space as the climate warms. We used a coarse‐filter approach to identify broad corridors for movement between areas where human influence is low while simultaneously routing the corridors along present‐day spatial gradients of temperature. We modified a cost–distance algorithm to model these corridors and tested the model with data on current land‐use and climate patterns in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. The resulting maps identified a network of patches and corridors across which species may move as climates change. The corridors are likely to be robust to uncertainty in the magnitude and direction of future climate change because they are derived from gradients and land‐use patterns. The assumptions we applied in our model simplified the stability of temperature gradients and species responses to climate change and land use, but the model is flexible enough to be tailored to specific regions by incorporating other climate variables or movement costs. When used at appropriate resolutions, our approach may be of value to local, regional, and continental conservation initiatives seeking to promote species movements in a changing climate. Planificación de Conectividad para Atender el Cambio Climático     

Conflicting and Complementary Ethics of Animal Welfare Considerations in Reintroductions

Despite differences in focus, goals, and strategies between conservation biology and animal welfare, both are inextricably linked in many ways, and greater consideration of animal welfare, although important in its own right, also has considerable potential to contribute to conservation success. Nevertheless, animal welfare and animal ethics are not always considered explicitly within conservation practice. We systematically reviewed the recent scientific peer‐reviewed and online gray literature on reintroductions of captive‐bred and wild‐caught animals (mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles) to quantify the occurrence of animal welfare issues. We considered monitoring that could be indicative of the animal's welfare status and supportive management actions that could improve animal welfare (regardless of whether the aim was explicitly animal‐welfare orientated). Potential welfare issues (of variable nature and extent) were recorded in 67% of 199 projects reviewed; the most common were mortality >50%, dispersal or loss of animals, disease, and human conflict. Most (>70%) projects monitored survival, 18% assessed body condition, and 2% monitored stress levels. Animal welfare, explicitly, was referred to in 6% of projects. Supportive actions, most commonly use of on‐site prerelease pens and provision of supplemental food or water, were implemented in 79% of projects, although the extent and duration of support varied. Practitioners can address animal‐welfare issues in reintroductions by considering the potential implications for individual animals at all stages of the release process using the decision tree presented. We urge practitioners to report potential animal‐welfare issues, describe mitigation actions, and evaluate their efficacy to facilitate transparent evaluation of common moral dilemmas and to advance communal strategies for dealing with them. Currently, comparative mortality rates, health risks, postrelease stress, effectiveness of supportive measures, and behavior of individuals warrant further research to improve animal welfare in reintroductions and to increase success of such projects. Ética Conflictiva y Complementaria al Considerar el Bienestar Animal en Reintroducciones     

Reexamining the Minimum Viable Population Concept for Long‐Lived Species

For decades conservation biologists have proposed general rules of thumb for minimum viable population size (MVP); typically, they range from hundreds to thousands of individuals. These rules have shifted conservation resources away from small and fragmented populations. We examined whether iteroparous, long‐lived species might constitute an exception to general MVP guidelines. On the basis of results from a 10‐year capture‐recapture study in eastern New York (U.S.A.), we developed a comprehensive demographic model for the globally threatened bog turtle (Glyptemys muhlenbergii), which is designated as endangered by the IUCN in 2011. We assessed population viability across a wide range of initial abundances and carrying capacities. Not accounting for inbreeding, our results suggest that bog turtle colonies with as few as 15 breeding females have >90% probability of persisting for >100 years, provided vital rates and environmental variance remain at currently estimated levels. On the basis of our results, we suggest that MVP thresholds may be 1–2 orders of magnitude too high for many long‐lived organisms. Consequently, protection of small and fragmented populations may constitute a viable conservation option for such species, especially in a regional or metapopulation context. Reexaminando el Concepto de Población Mínima Viable para Especies Longevas Resumen     

Contribution of Systematic Reviews to Management Decisions

Systematic reviews comprehensively summarize evidence about the effectiveness of conservation interventions. We investigated the contribution to management decisions made by this growing body of literature. We identified 43 systematic reviews of conservation evidence, 23 of which drew some concrete conclusions relevant to management. Most reviews addressed conservation interventions relevant to policy decisions; only 35% considered practical on‐the‐ground management interventions. The majority of reviews covered only a small fraction of the geographic and taxonomic breadth they aimed to address (median = 13% of relevant countries and 16% of relevant taxa). The likelihood that reviews contained at least some implications for management tended to increase as geographic coverage increased and to decline as taxonomic breadth increased. These results suggest the breadth of a systematic review requires careful consideration. Reviews identified a mean of 312 relevant primary studies but excluded 88% of these because of deficiencies in design or a failure to meet other inclusion criteria. Reviews summarized on average 284 data sets and 112 years of research activity, yet the likelihood that their results had at least some implications for management did not increase as the amount of primary research summarized increased. In some cases, conclusions were elusive despite the inclusion of hundreds of data sets and years of cumulative research activity. Systematic reviews are an important part of the conservation decision making tool kit, although we believe the benefits of systematic reviews could be significantly enhanced by increasing the number of reviews focused on questions of direct relevance to on‐the‐ground managers; defining a more focused geographic and taxonomic breadth that better reflects available data; including a broader range of evidence types; and appraising the cost‐effectiveness of interventions. Contribuciones de las Revisiones Sistemáticas a las Decisiones de Manejo