Vetoing the future: political constraints and renewable energy

Despite the increased importance of and attention to renewable energy, its share in the overall energy mix has varied significantly across countries and over time. There are many determinants of clean energy transitions; this study focuses on political constraints. Here it is argued that political systems that have fewer political constraints have fewer access points through which powerful status quo veto players can slow the progress of clean energy reforms. To test the theory, a hierarchical model is applied on a dataset of 125 countries over four decades. The results provide significant support for the theory. Furthermore, the effects for political constraints hold even when we distinguish between hydro and non-hydro renewable sources and control for regime type. This study builds on research that recognizes the importance of politics in understanding the challenges and opportunities of clean energy reform.     

产业园区碳排放核算方法研究

产业园区是一个协同实现经济效益和环境效益的重要单元,同时也是重点碳排放源,其转型和发展对实现国家和地区的低碳战略起到关键作用。碳排放核算方法影响园区碳排放水平的评估,是制定有效碳减排策略的基础。产业园区碳排放核算需要明确核算对象、核算结果表征和核算范围。本研究首先界定核算对象,辨析"二氧化碳量"与"二氧化碳当量"两种表征方式,认为二氧化碳量可以反映产业园区能源结构,而二氧化碳当量则能够量化园区的不同排放过程和环境效应。同时,从价值链角度出发,将园区碳排放核算划分为三个Scope,分别反映园区直接排放和上下游关联企业的间接排放。然后,从排放活动和部门关联出发,分析三种典型碳排放核算方法(清单分析法、投入产出分析和生态网络分析),进一步划分为流量分析模式和结构分析模式。流量分析模式主要从排放量角度对园区内部及其上下游产业链相关的碳排放活动进行核算;结构分析模式则聚焦园区相关碳排放部门和价值链的组织形式,从投入产出或者网络关联角度开展分析。研究发现清单分析法可以自下而上量化产业园区碳排放活动的流量,投入产出法则自上而下揭示碳排放单元的直接和间接流量以及平行结构,而生态网络分析则采用混合式核算模式刻画碳排放单元之间的网状关联结构。最后,本研究初步提出了产业园区碳排放核算方法的研究框架,力求提高排放因子精度,改进核算模式和建立动态核算模型,对碳排放总量和结构进行预测,从而实现产业园区的低碳发展。     

电网发展、清洁电源接入与地区能源效率

鉴于我国已经建成全球规模最大的超高压和特高压电网,彻底弥补了电力跨区配置的电网基础设施短板,并且为清洁电源并入电网和跨区消纳提供了完善的基础设施,不仅克服我国电力负荷中心和能源基地的区域布局不协调,而且有益于缓解日益严峻的能源利用率低下和环境污染问题。本文利用1991—2012年全国29个省市面板数据实证研究了清洁电源并网对地区全要素能源效率的影响。为保证实证结果稳健性分别在线性和非线性实证框架下采用系统广义矩估计(SYS-GMM)和面板平滑转换模型(PSTR)两种方法估计了清洁电源接入高压、超高压和特高压电网的地区全要素能源效率异质性效应。实证结果显示:(1)我国电网基础设施对地区全要素能源效率具有明显的增进效应,特别是超高压电网在促进全要素能源效率提升上表现的最为突出,在特高压骨干网架尚未形成的情况下起到了支柱性作用。(2)高压、超高压、特高压与清洁电源交互项的估计系数始终位于负数区间,反映清洁电源并网的能源效率绩效并不明显,受限于并网规模和机制缺陷,还没有发挥出全要素能源效率提升作用。(3)随着人均GDP的不断提高,各等级电网对地区能源效率的益处越来越明显,并且存在着门槛效应。(4)特高压电网对地区能源效率的积极作用主要表现在东部沿海高收入省份,这些省份作为电力消费负荷中心,大规模接入清洁电源对能源效率改善裨益明显。接下来,需要根据地区的能源禀赋结构选择清洁电源的并网模式,完善的电网基础设施、合理的电源结构还需要配置以高效的清洁电源并网机制才能不断增进地区全要素能源效率。     

城镇化对工业能源消费的门槛效应研究——以长江经济带省份为例

高效能源利用是推动工业发展,进而促使城镇格局演化的重要催化剂,同时城镇化的高速发展对工业能源的消费结构和利用效率提出了进一步的要求,这必将影响到低碳城市建设和环境保护等生态责任目标的实现。选取2003—2012年长江经济带11个省份(直辖市)的相关数据,运用门槛模型对城镇化率、城镇居民人均总收入、能源工业投资、工业总产值、城市人口密度、产业结构等影响工业能源消费的因素进行分析,重点研究城镇化率和工业能源消费的非线性关系和相应的地区差异。结果表明:(1)长江经济带城镇化发展存在着明显的地区差异,上海、浙江等东部地区城镇化发展速度和水平明显优于云南、贵州等中西部地区。云南和贵州2012年的城镇化率远远低于2003年上海、浙江的城镇化率,显示出长江上游和下游之间存在着巨大的发展水平差距。(2)城镇化对工业能源消费存在显著的门槛效应,以城镇化率为门槛变量,存在两个结构变化点,分别为36.9%和48.3%。(3)在第一个门槛点前,城镇化对工业能源消费起抑制作用,前期城镇化的发展导致资源和人口的集聚效应明显,资源的利用效率和配置效率得到提升,从而抑制工业能源消费。在越过第二个门槛点后,城镇化对工业能源消费起正向作用,此时工业的发展和生活消费水准的提升对能源消费提出了更多的要求。最后为促进长江经济带城镇化和工业低碳化的协调发展,提出以下建议:加快长江经济带沿线各省份联动发展,缩小城镇化发展差异;针对城镇化率和工业能源消费的非线性关系,采取相应的措施引导和控制工业能源消费的变化趋势;协调城镇化进程和地区工业能源消耗,促进城镇化的健康发展。     

美国居民生活用能状况与趋势:30年微观调查数据分析

随着居民部门用能快速增长,各国都在致力于观察本国居民能源消费特征以减少碳排放,特别是发达国家。本文应用近30年的微观调查数据分析美国居民能源消费现状和趋势,为发展中国家提供一些借鉴意义。从总量上看,伴随着人口、家庭数量和建筑面积的上升,能源消费总量变化较小,趋于稳定;人均用能则呈下降趋势。从用能结构来看,以天然气和电力为主,2009年分别占比44%和41%;近30年来天然气占比小幅下降,电力占比上升明显;完善的天然气设施和电力服务体系使得能源可获得性高。从用途分类来看,取暖和家电占绝大比例,2009年分别占比41%和35%;取暖用能近30年来出现平缓下降趋势,燃料来源70%是天然气;家电设备用能占比明显上升,增长近1倍;制冷占比较小,近年出现小幅上升;热水用能则比较稳定。家庭炊事燃料以电力和天然气为主,2009年分别占比60%和34%。近30年,家用电器保有量和能源效率有显著提高。建筑用能方面,美国房屋服务时间长,后期建筑房屋在保温性能方面高于早期房屋,单位面积耗能下降。美国居民享受着较高水平的能源服务,能源消费总量在近30年没有明显变化,这和能源效率的提高有着密切关系;如完善的"能源之星"项目是一个强有力的措施,以及完善的能源统计制度为能源分析提供了有力的数据支撑。相比,中国存在居民炊事用能固体燃料占比较高、建筑服务周期短、建筑材料耗能比重大等问题。建议中国政府进一步完善能源统计制度、推行农村能源扶持项目和能源标识、加强建筑规划、落实建筑能耗标准。     

中国区域能源、经济与环境耦合的动态演化

文章全面解析了系统耦合机制,以此为基础构建了能源、经济与环境三系统耦合模型,测算了1995—2014年中国四大区域三大系统间的耦合协调水平,并从时空两个维度对区域三系统交互关系的变化特征以及差异做出了全面讨论。结果表明,1各省区经济和环境综合指数呈持续上升的良好态势,而能源综合指数在小幅波动中保持了较为稳定的发展状态,同时三者关系极为密切,具体表现为三类指数的变动具有显著的相关性。2三系统交互作用的耦合度均保持不断递增的演化趋势,但绝对水平较低,且区域间差异较为明显,整体上呈现由东到西递减态势。3三系统的耦合变化与能源-经济、能源-环境和经济-环境三类二元系统的协调发展具有密切的相关性。4在探索三系统耦合协调的持续发展路径时,需重点引导三系统打破固有束缚,通过有秩序的相互配合产生单个系统所不具备的发展能力。而从现实状态看,在当前面临经济下行、资源环境不可持续以及区域发展差异扩大等问题的严峻挑战,各省区需结合本区域实际发展状况和比较优势制定发展规划。东部需以雄厚的经济实力为基础强化技术创新,以带动能源高效利用和环境保护;中部和东北需调整能源消费结构并提高能源利用效率;西部则应将重点放在绿色发展和防范环境风险两方面。     

Urban sustainable energy development: A case study of the city of Philadelphia

Cities throughout the world are key sites for energy sustainability activities. However, analysis of such efforts to date has focused on a sub-set of atypical cities: early adopters and/or world cities. This article undertakes a case-study analysis for an ordinary city, Philadelphia, PA in order to assess the extent to which prior research provides adequate policy explanation for ordinary cities and to gain empirical insight on two under-researched aspects: policy actors, and the policy-making and implementation sites (action sites) for urban energy sustainability. Overall, the types of policy drivers, modes of governance, and enabling factors and barriers in the Philadelphia case fit with prior studies. Focusing on actors and action sites, however, offers insight on the city’s relative policy-making approach based on “non-controversy”, the key role of third-sector actors in both policy-making and implementation, and the diversification of action sites through external-level policy-making operationalised locally nevertheless at the expense of reduced control by urban actors. These findings lead to recommendations for urban energy sustainability research and practice.     

Blowing policy bubbles: rethinking emissions targets and low-carbon energy policies in the U.K.

The issue of proportionality is central to climate policy debates about setting targets for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and the development of low-carbon energy. In effect, these debates centre on whether the perceived social costs outweigh the benefits of policies and, if not, whether this may lead to over-investment or ‘policy bubbles’. Political attention, agenda setting and policy image are all crucial drivers of ambitious policy formation, as seen in the case of the United Kingdom's (U.K.) Climate Change Act (2008). However, as political salience waned and economic depression dragged on, the cost of long-term climate targets has been reconsidered. Based on documentary analysis and 33 interviews with central political actors, this article presents a detailed account of how economic arguments have been used to reinterpret and challenge policies, using the heuristics of ‘over-investment’ and ‘policy bubbles’. Ultimately, arguments about proportionality hinge on which costs and benefits are considered. In the U.K., economic and technical framings are typically prioritised, but they do not explain contradictory and politically motivated policy decisions. We discuss these dynamics within the context of maturing renewable energy technologies, high energy prices and the U.K.’s cross-party consensus approach to climate politics.     

The impact of the electricity tariff reform on renewable energies and energy efficiency investments: The case of the Italian residential market

This article investigates the impact that the electricity tariff reform is likely to have on investments in renewable energies (i.e., photovoltaics) and the adoption of energy efficiency measures (i.e., installation of heat pumps and efficient home appliances) in the residential market in Italy. The study develops detailed cost comparisons and simulations considering two different investment scenarios (before and after the reform) to conclude that the reform will: (i) have a negative impact on investments in photovoltaic systems; (ii) favor the adoption of energy efficiency measures, such as efficient home appliances.