对人的认识和假设是人机工程学的基石

人机系统是以人为中心的系统，对人的认识和假设是人机工程学的基石。本文提出了人是生物人、经济人、社会人的复合体的新观点。由于对人的特质的认识还存在着许多“盲区”和“误区”，这就给人机工程学的完善和发展带来了许多不定因素和困难     

浅论洪水的完全影响

对洪水、洪水灾害及洪灾损失重新进行了定义，并简要论述了洪水对家庭、社会及自然环境的影响。     

THE FLOOD OF '96 AND ITS SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS IN THE SUSQUEHANNA RWER BASIN1

ABSTRACT: The meteorology flood hydroclimatolog and socioeconomic impacts of the Flood of January 1996 in the Susquehanna River Basin are explored. The analysis explains how an unusual storm system brought high humidities, high temperatures, strong winds, and heavy rain to the basin. The rapid melt of the deep snowpack, combined with the heavy rainfall, produced the sudden release of large volumes of water. Because the ground surface was frozen or saturated, this water moved primarily as overland flow. Thus, the flood waters were not restricted to areas immediately adjacent to stream channels and, consequently, some of the largest impacts were on people, property, and infrastructure in areas not normally prone to flooding. Socioeconomic patterns of flooding over time and space are investigated to put this flood into context and to highlight its impacts. The analysis concludes that if such overland flooding is a more common feature of climate change, then the current vulnerability to this form of flooding and its economic implications must be considered carefully.     

MORPHOLOGIC RESPONSE OF SUBALPINE STREAMS TO TRANSBASIN FLOW DIVERSION1

ABSTRACT: Flow has been diverted from Rocky Mountain streams for many years with little documentation of the impacts on physical form and biological function of the losing stream system. This study addresses whether differences in form can be detected in subalpine step-pool, plane bed, or pool-riffle channels and linked to changes in flow regime from diversion. Total annual discharge was reduced between 20 and 60 percent and average annual peak flow was reduced up to 45 percent in the subalpine systems assessed; channels were diverted between 20 and 100 years. Expected impacts include reduced conveyance and changes in vegetation growth patterns because formerly active surfaces are colonized by riparian species, effectuating shrinking channel capacity. In this study, reduced channel width is used as an indicator of morphologic response. Observed reductions in width, ranging from 35 to 50 percent at some sites, resulted not only from vegetation invasion of stable surfaces but also from the development of an inset beside former cut banks. This observation, however, was restricted to wider pool-riffle channels with gravel bars. Outside of these areas, morphologic changes were either subtle or absent. The absence of widespread response is attributed primarily to periodic “flooding” of the diverted channel. During wetter-than-average years when excess water is available, minimal flow is diverted and the hydrograph resembles a free-flowing regime. The release of high flow to the natural channel potentially offsets changes in form incurred during “dry” periods. The stable nature and structure of subalpine channels also contributes to the absence of reduced capacity.     

Issues,impacts, and implications of shrimp aquaculture in Thailand

Water quality impacts to and from intensive shrimp aquaculture in Thailand are substantial. Besides the surface and subsurface salinization of freshwaters, loadings of solids, oxygen-consuming organic matter, and nutrients to receiving waters are considerable when the cumulative impacts from water exchange during the growout cycle, pond drainage during harvesting, and illegal pond sediment disposal are taken into account. Although just beginning to be considered in Thailand, partial recirculating and integrated intensive farming systems are producing promising, if somewhat limited, results. By providing on-site treatment of the effluent from the shrimp growout ponds, there is less reliance on using outside water supplies, believed to be the source of the contamination.The explosion in the number of intensively operated shrimp farms has not only impacted the coastal zone of Thailand, but has also resulted in an unsustainable aquaculture industry. Abandonment of shrimp ponds due to either drastic, disease-caused collapses or more grandual, year-to-year reductions in the productivity of the pond is common. To move Thailand towards a more sustainable aquaculture industry and coastal zone environment, integrated aquaculture management is needed. Components of integrated aquaculture management are technical and institutional. The technical components involve deployment of wastewater treatment and minimal water-use systems aimed at making aquaculture operations more hydraulically closed. Before this is possible, technical and economic feasibility studies on enhanced nitrification systems and organic solids removal by oxidation between production cycles and/or the utilization of plastic pond liners need to be conducted. The integration of semi-intensive aquaculture within mangrove areas also should be investigated since mangrove losses attributable to shrimp aquaculture are estimated to be between 16 and 32% of the total mangrove area destroyed betweeen 1979 and 1993.Government policy needs to devote as much attention to sustainability issues as it has on promoting intensive pond culture. Such a balanced policy would include training and education monitoring and enforcement, rehabilitating abandoned ponds, managing land use within the coastal zone, more community involvement, and government reorganization to eliminate overlapping jurisdictions among agencies.As integrated aquaculture management becomes more the practice than the exception, less risk of crop failure to the industry and reduced discharge loadings from intensively managed shrimp ponds to receiving waters can be expected. Projected limitations on growing and marketing shrimp in the future, such as scarcity of land and broodstock, continued disease outbreaks, negative publicity, regulatory enforcement, water treatment and solids disposal costs, and increased competition from growers in other Asian countries will also drive the government and the industry towards adopting integrated aquaculture management.The data for this paper was obtained while the senior author was a Visiting Fulbright Researcher at the Coastal Resources Institute (CORIN), Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla, 90112, Thailand.     

Modeling wilderness campsites: Factors that influence amount of impact

A standard campsite model is proposed and then manipulated to examine the influence of individual variables on amount of vegetation loss. Amount of impact is influenced by amount of use, vegetation fragility, vegetation density, and the degree to which activities are concentrated spatially on the site. Degree of concentration also influences the importance of the other explanatory variables. Amount of use and vegetation fragility are equally important determinants of impact and are most influential where activity concentration is low. The curvilinear relationship between amount of use and amount of impact can be explained by the tendency for activities to become increasingly concentrated as amount of use increases. This relationship should not vary with regional or environmental characteristics except where these influence degree of activity concentration.     

ACCIDENTAL AND PLANNED WEATHER MODIFICATION IN ILLINOIS1

ABSTRACT: Weather modification, both planned by man and that accidentally produced by man, has been under intensive study in Illinois for ten years. Most everyone in Illinois and the Midwest is living in a climate that now is modified inadvertently from its natural state. State atmospheric scientists have tackled weather modification through a series of interrelated studies beginning with climatic studies (to establish the background), experimental design studies, experimental field studies to verify changes and their causes, and finally socio-economic and environmental studies to measure the impacts of weather modification. Studies at St. Louis show that the city acts as a trigger of summer clouds and rainfall leading to 4 to 6 summer days with 3 cm or more rain somewhere just east of the city. Power plants and jet aircraft also accidentally produce climatic changes. A focus on planned weather modification has been on the design of needed midwestern experiments in rainfall enhancement and hail suppression including the societal and environmental impacts.     

INTEGRATING SOCIAL ANALYSIS INTO WATER RESOURCES PLANNING: SOME EMERGING TRENDS IN THE CORPS OF ENGINEERS1

ABSTRACT: While federal water resources laws and regulations require social analysis, no one workable formula exists for integrating it into water resources planning. Two primary problems in integrating social analysis into planning are examined; making trade-offs between policy acceptability and theoretical competence, and managing social analysis in planning. For illustration, the article builds on emerging trends within the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. It concludes by observing that creative application of social theory to policy problems along with innovative data gathering techniques are the primary routes to managing these problems.     

WILD RIVERS - METHODS FOR EVALUATION1

ABSTRACT: Two analytical methods are presented and demonstrated for evaluating the monetary and nonmonetary benefits of wild rivers. In the traditional benefit-cost context special techniques are required to show that any wild river is worthy of preservation. The methods presented allow for the possibility of low development levels in river basins to be optimal, although advanced development can also be shown to be most efficient in some circumstances. That is, the methods are not directed to the wild condition only but to the entire spectrum of development possibilities. The applications of the methods to two adjacent subbasins in the State of Washington each showed that the currently undeveloped basin should be left in its wild condition, while the partially developed basin next door should be developed even more fully.     

A DESCRIPTIVE MODEL FOR ANALYZING PROPOSED COST SHARING RATE CHANGES1

ABSTRACT: This article offers a procedure for identifying the primary effects of financing and cost sharing rates on four basic levels: program, technical, incidence, and comprehensive impacts. A process is developed for identifying these effects based upon two alternative approaches. One method would follow the effects of rate changes through the four levels of impact, another would look in depth at the consequences of rate changes on a particular impact. For this study the information and suggested changes found in the Section 80(c) Study were used to illustrate possible impacts. The process suggested herein could be used in anticipating impacts of any major policy change.