Proactive and reactive helping: Contrasting the positive consequences of different forms of helping

Research on helping has identified positive consequences of helping for the helper, beneficiary, group, and organization. Recent research, however, raises concerns about contingencies that influence the outcomes of helping and suggests the need for a more nuanced perspective on the positive outcomes of helping. In this paper, we develop a novel theoretical perspective to address these contingencies by differentiating between proactive helping and reactive helping. Drawing from the two main theoretical frameworks, which have been used as the basis for studying helping—social exchange theory and functional motives theory—we discuss differences in the positive consequences of reactive and proactive helping for helpers, dyads, groups, and organizations. We submit that reactive helping facilitates heedful relationships, such that it creates and perpetuates social exchange norms that benefit others in the group. Conversely, we posit that proactive helping is often based on fulfilling personal needs, such that it benefits the self in terms of reputational benefits, well‐being, favorable self‐evaluations, need satisfaction, and self‐development. We discuss theoretical implications of this framework for future research on the positive consequences of helping. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于场动力理论的建筑工人人格特质、情绪与不安全行为关系研究*

为深入探讨建筑工人人格特质、情绪与不安全行为之间的作用关系,提高建筑工人安全认知能力,以293名一线建筑工人为调查对象,基于场动力理论,构建人格特质和情绪对不安全行为影响机制的理论模型,实证检验人格特质和情绪对不安全行为的预测作用以及情绪调节效应。研究结果表明:外倾性、神经质、开放性3种人格正向预测不安全行为显著;正负性情绪对不安全行为水平具有显著影响,正性情绪在外倾性-不安全行为和神经质-不安全行为间具有显著调节效应,负性情绪在责任心-不安全行为和开放性-不安全行为间具有显著调节效应。研究结果可为建筑施工企业根据工人个性化心理特征,溯源工人自身安全问题,为后续开展分类干预管理和矫正不安全行为提供理论支持。     

湖北省农地资源正外部性价值量估算——基于对农地社会与生态之功能和价值分类的分析

农地资源的正外部性直接或间接对人类福利产生影响，但由于市场机制的自身缺陷导致人们对其价值缺乏定量认识，致使农地资源得不到应有的保护，造成向城市的过度流转。以湖北省为例，在将农地资源正外部性划分为提供社会保障、保证粮食安全以及提供生态服务3个方面的基础上，以2006年为评估期日，尝试用市场价格评估的方法对其年价值和无限年期的总价值进行了估算。结果显示：2006年湖北省农地资源在提供社会保障方面的年价值及无限年期价值分别为87460元/hm2·a和34 70635元/hm2；粮食安全保障功能的年价值及无限年期价值分别为32209元/hm2·a和12 78135元/hm2；生态服务功能的年价值及无限年期价值分别为4 34855元/hm2·a和172 56151元/hm2。最终核算出湖北省正外部性的年价值总量及无限年期价值总量分别为5 54524元/hm2·a和220 04921元/hm2，这部分无法通过市场价格表现的价值大致与湖北省农地经济产出价值相当，甚至略高出5%~38%，无疑是农地价值中不容忽视的重要组成部分，应当引起土地管理者和社会决策者的充分重视。农地城市流转的失控和对农地保护的忽视实质上就是对农地正外部效用的抛弃和破坏，最终将阻碍社会经济的可持续发展。     

影响中小企业实施积极主动型环境策略的管理因素分析

通过对以往实证性研究文献的回溯,分析了影响中小企业作出积极主动型环境策略选择的某些管理层面的因素及其变化,并提出了今后我国在该领域的研究方向和建议。     

关中地区冬季PM2.5中碳气溶胶的污染特征及来源解析

为研究关中地区冬季PM2.5中碳气溶胶的污染特征和来源,于2012年12月至2013年2月在西安、宝鸡、渭南和秦岭进行PM2.5的采集,并利用热光反射法测定了样品中的有机碳(organic carbon,OC)和元素碳(elemental carbon,EC).结果表明,4个采样点OC的平均质量浓度分别为47.8、45.8、31.2和37.0μg·m-3,EC分别为8.5、6.7、7.6和5.7μg·m-3,总碳气溶胶(total carbonaceous aerosol,TCA)分别占PM2.5的36.4%、46.2%、36.9%和33.4%.OC和EC的相关性在西安(R2=0.93)和秦岭(R2=0.91)高于宝鸡(R2=0.58)和渭南(R2=0.62),表明OC和EC在西安和秦岭可能具有更为相似的来源,也可能具有更高的混合程度.所有样品的OC/EC比值均大于2.0,表明有二次气溶胶(secondary organic carbon,SOC)的生成,4个采样点SOC分别占OC的21.6%、40.3%、23.2%和27.8%.正定矩阵因子分析法(positive matrix factorization,PMF)解析结果显示,燃煤是关中地区冬季碳气溶胶的首要来源,占45.3%~47.9%,汽油车和生物质燃烧是次要来源,分别占26.1%~33.1%和14.3%~20.1%,此外柴油车也有一定贡献.     

菏泽市PM2.5源方向解析研究

为了定量解析环境受体中不同方向PM_2.5的源贡献水平,利用“源方向解析”（source directional apportionment,SDA）法〔综合PMF（positive matrix factorization,正定矩阵因子）方法和后向轨迹模型〕对京津冀大气污染传输通道上某典型城市——菏泽市环境受体中PM_2.5进行来源解析,并分析不同方向的源贡献.结果表明,菏泽市环境受体中ρ（PM_2.5）变化范围为42.73~191.72 μg/m3,平均值为92.54 μg/m3.SO₄2-、NO₃-和NH₄+是菏泽市环境受体中PM_2.5的主要化学组分;ρ（SO₄2-）、ρ（NO₃-）和ρ（NH₄+）的平均值分别为29.78、22.11和7.91 μg/m3,三者之和占ρ（PM_2.5）的63.54%.PMF的计算结果显示,二次无机盐、机动车排放、扬尘、煤烟尘和建筑水泥尘是菏泽市环境受体中PM_2.5的贡献源类,分担率分别为32.61%、22.60%、19.54%、16.25%和9.00%.利用后向轨迹模型识别出PM_2.5贡献源类的4个潜在方向,分别为东南、正西、西北和正东.二次无机盐在4个方向的贡献分别为8.49%、5.01%、6.65%和12.88%;机动车排放分别为1.39%、4.44%、7.47%和8.22%;扬尘分别为4.95%、3.65%、4.12%和6.92%;煤烟尘分别为4.56%、1.93%、2.16%和7.28%;建筑水泥尘分别为2.22%、1.88%、1.27%和3.56%.研究显示,菏泽市PM_2.5污染较为严重,其中二次源、机动车和扬尘源是其主要贡献源类,并且来自菏泽市东部的各源类贡献均较高.      

北京山谷风环流特征分析及其对PM2.5浓度的影响

利用北京地区2013~2015年秋冬季各自动站气象要素数据、大气所铁塔资料以及海淀气象站风廓线数据和该地区PM2.5浓度数据,挑选典型个例分析山谷风环流特征及其对PM2.5浓度的影响.经过分析发现,谷风(山风)平均风速为0.55m·s~(-1)(0.31 m·s~(-1)).秋季(冬季)谷风平均持续时间为9h(6h),秋季(冬季)谷风开始时刻为11:00(13:00);秋季(冬季)山风持续时间为13 h(16 h),秋季(冬季)山风开始时刻为21:00(20:00);受北京地区地形等的影响,山谷风转化的风向分界线为东北-西南向,秋季山风前沿压到南二环,冬季山风前沿压到南三环;山、谷风在形成及发展变化的过程中,其厚度有着明显的变化,谷风(山风)秋冬季的平均厚度为700~1 000 m(300~600 m);无论是秋季还是冬季,一天中平均PM2.5浓度开始上升的时刻南部早于北部,秋季PM2.5浓度开始上升的时刻要早于冬季,而开始下降的时刻秋季会晚于冬季.北京地区秋(冬)季空气污染南北差异较大的过渡区处于南二环(南三环),并会随着时间的推移向南移动.秋(冬)季该现象的持续时间为4 h(2h).并且,在研究中发现,PM2.5与山谷风之间可能存在着一定的正负反馈作用.     

新乡冬季PM2.5中金属元素与水溶性离子年际变化及其来源解析

为了探究新乡地区年际间冬季PM_(2.5)组分的变化特征和污染来源,于2015年冬季和2016年冬季分别在新乡市区进行连续1个月的膜采样,测定PM_(2.5)质量浓度、金属元素含量及其水溶性离子成分含量,并结合气象因素进行分析.结果表明,新乡地区2015年和2016年冬季采样期间PM_(2.5)的质量浓度日均值分别为226μg·m~(-3)和224μg·m~(-3),污染水平较高.观测期间,新乡冬季PM_(2.5)中Cd和Pb金属元素富集明显,富集因子超过1000.且与2015年相比,2016年金属元素(除Ag和Ni)浓度下降约7. 83%～73. 33%,富集程度均趋于降低.水溶性离子以SO_4~(2-)、NO_3~-和NH_4~+这3种为主,2016年在PM_(2.5)中占比上升25. 1%.综合两种成分分析,新乡地区的PM_(2.5)污染呈现出金属污染向二次水溶性离子污染转移的趋势.综合PCA和PMF源解析结果显示,新乡市冬季有4种主要排放源,即尘土、二次源、工业源和化石燃料燃烧源,2015年冬季主要来源是土壤和建筑扬尘混合源,贡献率37. 46%,2016年主要来源是交通及工业生产中的二次气溶胶污染源,贡献率为34. 94%.     

Using biological data from field studies with multiple reference sites as a basis for environmental management: the risks for false positives and false negatives

Field surveys of biological responses can provide valuable information about environmental status and anthropogenic stress. However, it is quite usual for biological variables to differ between sites or change between two periods of time also in the absence of an impact. This means that there is an obvious risk that natural variation will be interpreted as environmental impact, or that relevant effects will be missed due to insufficient statistical power. Furthermore, statistical methods tend to focus on the risks for Type-I error, i.e. false positives. For environmental management, the risk for false negatives is (at least) equally important. The aim of the present study was to investigate how the probabilities for false positives and negatives are affected by experimental set up (number of reference sites and samples per site), decision criteria (statistical method and α-level) and effect size. A model was constructed to simulate data from multiple reference sites, a negative control and a positive control. The negative control was taken from the same distribution as the reference sites and the positive control was just outside the normal range. Using the model, the probabilities to get false positives and false negatives were calculated when a conventional statistical test, based on a null hypothesis of no difference, was used along with alternative tests that were based on the normal range of natural variation. Here, it is tested if an investigated site is significantly inside (equivalence test) and significantly outside (interval test) the normal range. Furthermore, it was tested how the risks for false positives and false negatives are affected by changes in α-level and effect size. The results of the present study show that the strategy that best balances the risks between false positives and false negatives is to use the equivalence test. Besides tests with tabulated p-values, estimates generated using a bootstrap routine were included in the present study. The simulations showed that the probability for management errors was smaller for the bootstrap compared to the traditional test and the interval test.