Trait space of rare plants in a fire‐dependent ecosystem

The causes of species rarity are of critical concern because of the high extinction risk associated with rarity. Studies examining individual rare species have limited generality, whereas trait‐based approaches offer a means to identify functional causes of rarity that can be applied to communities with disparate species pools. Differences in functional traits between rare and common species may be indicative of the functional causes of species rarity and may therefore be useful in crafting species conservation strategies. However, there is a conspicuous lack of studies comparing the functional traits of rare species and co‐occurring common species. We measured 18 important functional traits for 19 rare and 134 common understory plant species from North Carolina's Sandhills region and compared their trait distributions to determine whether there are significant functional differences that may explain species rarity. Flowering, fire, and tissue‐chemistry traits differed significantly between rare and common, co‐occurring species. Differences in specific traits suggest that fire suppression has driven rarity in this system and that changes to the timing and severity of prescribed fire may improve conservation success. Our method provides a useful tool to prioritize conservation efforts in other systems based on the likelihood that rare species are functionally capable of persisting.     

Within-population variation in ejaculate characteristics in a prolonged breeder,Peron’s tree frog, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Litoria peronii</Emphasis>

Sperm number is often a good predictor of success in sperm competition; however, it has become increasingly clear that, for some species, variation in probability of paternity cannot be explained by sperm number alone. Intraspecific variation in ejaculate characteristics, such as the number of viable sperm and sperm longevity, may play an equally important role in determining fertilization success. Here, we assess variation among ejaculates in three factors that may contribute to fertilization success (number of sperm per ejaculate, viability, and longevity), in a population of Peron’s tree frog (Litoria peronii). We detected large variation among males in the number of sperm per ejaculate and the proportion of viable sperm within ejaculates, which could not be explained by variation in either male size or body condition. However, the proportion of viable sperm released by males increased over the season. Finally, we assessed sperm longevity (proportion viable sperm determined using a dual-fluorochrome vital dye) at two different temperatures. At 23°C, on average, 75% of sperm remained viable after 2 h, but there were significant differences amongst males with the percentage of viable sperm ranging from 43% to 95%. For sperm incubated at 4°C, ejaculates varied fivefold in sperm longevity with some males having 50% viable sperm after 5 days. Our data suggest that ejaculate characteristics (sperm number, viability, and longevity) vary widely in Peron’s tree frog and may therefore play an important role in determining siring success both in the presence and absence of sperm competition. We discuss the results in relation to selection on ejaculate traits via natural and sexual selection in this and other amphibians.     

Maternal investment in eggs is affected by male feet colour and breeding conditions in the blue-footed booby, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sula nebouxii</Emphasis>

Females are expected to vary investment in offspring according to variables that may influence the offspring fitness in a way that optimises her inclusive fitness for a particular context. Thus, when sexual ornaments signal the quality of the male, females might invest in reproduction as a function of the attractiveness of their mate. We tested whether breeding conditions and male feet colour influence reproductive decisions of blue-footed booby females. In the blue-footed booby, male feet colour is a dynamic condition-dependent sexually selected trait that is related to paternal effort. During two consecutive years, an El Niño year (poor breeding conditions) and a year with good breeding conditions, we experimentally reduced male attractiveness by modifying their feet colour after the first egg was laid and recorded female investment in the second egg. We found that, relative to the first egg in the clutch, females laid heavier second eggs during the poor year than during the good year. Females paired with males with duller feet colour reduced second-egg mass and volume and delayed the laying of the second egg, independently of the year. Absolute yolk androstenedione (A4) concentration (but not testosterone, T) in second eggs was higher during a poor year than during a good year. Only during a year with poor breeding conditions, females paired with experimental males decreased the relative A4 concentration (but not T) in the second egg compared to control females. Thus, blue-footed booby females probably favour brood reduction by decreasing egg quality and increasing size asymmetry between chicks when the breeding and the mate conditions are poor.     

Copulatory plugs do not assure high first male fertilisation success: sperm displacement in a lizard

Sperm competition selects for opposing male defensive and offensive reproductive traits, and its outcome may be determined by the effectiveness to which one trait has evolved to out-compete the other. We tested the effectiveness of a first male plug physical interference with a second male insemination (defence) vs the effectiveness of plug and associated sperm displacement by a second male (offence) on the outcome of sperm competition in Iberian rock lizards. We conducted a double mating experiment where we compared the proportion of eggs per clutch fertilised by the same second males (against the same first males) when they copulated with females 30 min (first male plug adhered firmly inside the female cloaca) and 4 h (first male plug loosely adhered or shed from the female cloaca) after first males. We found that second males fertilised the majority of the eggs per clutch in the 30-min treatment, whereas fertilisations were equally shared between the two males in the 4-h treatment. These results show that plugs have little defensive effectiveness, and thus, do not assure high first male fertilisation success. Instead, sperm displacement appears to be associated with plug displacement. That is, because sperm embedded in first male plugs, and displaced from competition for fertilisations by second males, is expected to increase in number with decreasing time allowed for female sperm transport, second males thus enjoy higher fertilisation success. This study shows that offensive plug displacement out-competes plug defensive role in Iberian rock lizards. Moreover, it reveals sperm displacement as a novel sperm competition mechanism in reptiles.     

Determinants of male territorial behavior in a Hungarian collared flycatcher population: plumage traits of residents and challengers

In intrasexual conflicts, contestants can rely on relative or absolute size of status badges to mediate aggressive behavior. Most studies focus on the response of focal animals to variation in status badges of their competitors; few have simultaneously considered the traits of both participants under experimental conditions. By simulating territorial intrusions, we tested the importance of two sexual traits [forehead patch size (FPS) and wing patch size (WPS)] in territorial behavior of males in a Hungarian population of the collared flycatcher, Ficedula albicollis. We presented a stimulus male to an unpaired resident male to examine whether the characteristics of the territory owner or those of the challenger were associated with the latency of the first attack of the owner, which is a good predictor of the territorial behavior in general. WPS of the stimulus male was a significant determinant of the latency of the first attack, as males with a larger WPS elicited quicker attacks from the residents than males with a small WPS. From the residents’ perspective, age appeared to influence their territorial behavior, as yearlings had shorter attack latencies than older males. Additionally, latency could be considered an individual-specific attribute because it varied consistently among males, even when the WPS of the stimulus male was controlled, and it was associated with pairing success. Contrary to findings in a Swedish population, FPS seemed to be unimportant in male–male competition in our population, which suggests population differences in the role of the two plumage traits. Our results indicate that in a territorial conflict, the characteristics of both participants are important.     

The effect of rearing environment on blue structural coloration of eastern bluebirds (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Sialia sialis</Emphasis>)

We used a brood-size manipulation to test the effect of rearing environment on structural coloration of feathers grown by eastern bluebird (Sialia sialis) nestlings. Ultraviolet (UV)-blue structural coloration has been shown to be sexually selected in this species. Our experimental design took advantage of the growth of UV-blue wing feathers in nestlings that are retained as part of the first nuptial plumage. We cross-fostered nestlings to create enlarged and reduced broods with the purpose of manipulating parental feeding rates and measured the effect on nestling growth and plumage coloration. Brood size influenced feeding rates to offspring, but the effect varied with season. In general, male nestlings reared in reduced broods were fed more often, weighed more, and displayed brighter structural plumage compared to nestlings reared in enlarged broods. Female nestlings appeared to experience less adverse affects of brood enlargement, and we did not detect an effect of brood-size manipulation on the plumage coloration of female nestlings. Measures of plumage coloration in both males and females, however, were correlated to hatching date and nestling mass during feather development. These data provide empirical evidence that environmental quality can influence the development of the blue structural coloration of feathers and that males may be more sensitive to environmental fluctuations than females.     

Effects of prenatal yolk androgens on armaments and ornaments of the ring-necked pheasant

Mothers may profoundly affect offspring phenotype and performance by adjusting egg components, including steroid hormones. We studied the effects of elevated prenatal testosterone (T) exposure in the ring-necked pheasant on the expression of a suite of male and female traits, including perinatal response to stress, immune response, growth, and secondary sexual traits. Prenatal T levels were increased by injecting the yolk of unincubated eggs with physiological doses of the hormone. Yolk T injection resulted in a reduced length of male tarsal spurs, a trait which positively predicts male success in intra- and intersexual selection and viability, whereas no direct effect on male wattle characteristics or plumage traits of either sex was observed. Female spur length was also negatively affected by T, but to a lesser extent than in males. In addition, the covariation between male secondary sexual traits, which are reliable quality indicators, differed between T and control males, suggesting that the manipulation may have altered the assessment of overall male quality by other males and females. In conclusion, the negative effects of elevated yolk T on spur length, a trait which positively predicts male fitness, coupled with the lack of effects on growth or other traits in both sexes, provided limited evidence for mothers being subjected to a trade-off between positive and negative consequences of yolk T deposition on offspring traits and suggest that directional selection for reduced yolk T levels may occur in the ring-necked pheasant.     

个人特征、家庭特征对农村非农就业影响的实证

工业化对于一个国家或地区经济腾飞的重要性,已经被西方发达国家的经验和道路所证实。在实现工业化的过程中,农村劳动力转移是世界各国都曾经或必将面对的重要课题。本文运用行为主义研究方法,利用2003-2006年全国农村固定观察点的数据,建立Probit模型实证分析了农民个体特征和农户家庭特征对农村非农就业的影响。研究发现:就样本个人特征而言,户主或家庭主要经营者、男性、文化程度较高、身体健康的农民从事农村非农就业的意愿更强,职业教育或培训对于农村非农就业有明显的促进作用,而是否农业户口对农村非农就业的影响并不明显。就样本家庭特征而言,家庭类型会影响农民在农村的非农就业倾向,同时,乡村干部户从事非农产业的倾向性更强,少数民族户和信教户从事非农产业的倾向性较弱,"是否国家干部职工户"、"是否党员户"对农村非农就业的影响并不显著。重视农民的个人特征和家庭特征差异,大力发展农村非农产业,促进农村非农就业是我国政府解决农村剩余劳动力转移问题的重要战略选择。     

元谋干热河谷植物功能性状组合的海拔梯度响应

植物功能性状能够显示对环境变化的响应,不同的适应对策呈现出不同的功能性状组合。干热河谷地区水分是最主要的限制性环境因子,之前的大部分研究都是集中关注于干热河谷局部地段,对于从垂直海拔上来研究不同植物在环境梯度下的变化的研究较少。干热河谷地区由于梵风效应,水分胁迫沿海拔梯度发生变化,一般表现为随海拔高度升高,气温降低,湿度和降水量增加,而蒸发量减小,辐射增强。以云南元谋干热河谷4个海拔梯度（1491.33、1730.20、1850.00、1925.57 m）中的植物为研究对象,选取叶片干物质含量（LDMC）、叶面积（LA）、比叶面积（SLA）、叶片厚度（LT）和叶密度（LD）5个功能性状,研究它们的相互关系,比较了海拔间的差异。结果表明：1）5个功能性状在不同海拔间均呈现出一定差异,变异系数由高到低为LD>LA>SLA>LT>LDMC（分别是101%、64%、56%、41%和19%）;方差分析结果也表明,5个功能性状在不同海拔之间差异显著（F=56.218,P<0.01;F=7.829,P<0.01;F=11.21,P<0.01;F=7.429,P<0.01;F=19.213,P<0.01）,尤其是在最低（1491.33 mm）和最高（1927.57 mm）海拔之间,各性状均具有极显著的差异;2）性状之间存在组合关系, LD与其他性状间相关性最为明显,除LDMC以外,LD与LA、SLA、LT均呈现出极显著负相关关系;LDMC与LA和LT呈极显著负相关;SLA与LA和LT呈正相关,而与LDMC显著负相关;LT与SLA显著正相关,与LA之间相关性不显著;3）在不同的海拔梯度之间,性状组合存在非同步变化现象。研究显示,元谋干热河谷地区,植物对水分环境的海拔梯度变化产生功能性状组合的响应,低海拔和高海拔物种对所处环境的适应策略不同,使得植物在海拔梯度上出现叶片功能性状组合的分化和差异。     

Dissecting the drivers of population cycles: Interactions between parasites and mountain hare demography

There is a growing awareness that cyclic population dynamics in vertebrate species are driven by a complex set of interactions rather than a single causal factor. While theory suggests that direct host-parasite interactions may destabilise population dynamics, the interaction between host and parasite may also influence population dynamics through indirect effects that result in delayed responses to either density or to life-history traits. Using empirical data on mountain hares (Lepus timidus) infected with a nematode parasite (Trichostrongylus retortaeformis), we developed an individual-based model (IBM) that incorporated direct effects and delayed life-history effects (DLHEs) of a macroparasite, alternative transmission mechanisms and seasonality in host population dynamics. The full model describes mean characteristics of observed mountain hare time series and parasite abundance, but by systematically removing model structure we dissect out dynamic influences of DLHEs. The DLHEs were weakly destabilising, increasing the propensity for cyclic dynamics and suggesting DLHEs could be important processes in host-parasite systems. Further, by modifying model structure we identify a strong influence of parasite transmission mechanism on host population stability, and discuss the implications for parasite aggregation mechanisms, host movement and natural geographical variation in host population dynamics. The effect of T. retortaeformis on mountain hares likely forms part of a complex set of interactions that lead to population cycles.