Dissecting the drivers of population cycles: Interactions between parasites and mountain hare demography

There is a growing awareness that cyclic population dynamics in vertebrate species are driven by a complex set of interactions rather than a single causal factor. While theory suggests that direct host-parasite interactions may destabilise population dynamics, the interaction between host and parasite may also influence population dynamics through indirect effects that result in delayed responses to either density or to life-history traits. Using empirical data on mountain hares (Lepus timidus) infected with a nematode parasite (Trichostrongylus retortaeformis), we developed an individual-based model (IBM) that incorporated direct effects and delayed life-history effects (DLHEs) of a macroparasite, alternative transmission mechanisms and seasonality in host population dynamics. The full model describes mean characteristics of observed mountain hare time series and parasite abundance, but by systematically removing model structure we dissect out dynamic influences of DLHEs. The DLHEs were weakly destabilising, increasing the propensity for cyclic dynamics and suggesting DLHEs could be important processes in host-parasite systems. Further, by modifying model structure we identify a strong influence of parasite transmission mechanism on host population stability, and discuss the implications for parasite aggregation mechanisms, host movement and natural geographical variation in host population dynamics. The effect of T. retortaeformis on mountain hares likely forms part of a complex set of interactions that lead to population cycles.     

The role of plant leaf attributes in linking land use to ecosystem function in temperate grassy vegetation

We tested predictions of the relative changes in plant leaf traits in response to land uses in Australian eucalypt grassy ecosystems. Predictions were determined from responses observed in European landscapes in relation to disturbances associated with agricultural land uses. We measured specific leaf area (SLA) and leaf dry matter content (LDMC) across five land uses: reference sites (closest to pre-European state), native pastures (unfertilized), fertilized pastures, sown pastures (cultivated and fertilized) and enriched grassland (previously fertilized, no longer grazed). Leaves were expected to have higher SLA and lower LMDC at sites with increasing fertility and/or disturbance.The predictions were confirmed, with SLA increasing progressively in land uses associated with (1) grazing; (2) grazing and fertilization; (3) grazing, fertilization and cultivation. Values for LDMC were closely (but inversely) correlated with those of SLA. For both traits, there were relationships with available soil phosphorus but not with soil total nitrogen. The positive correlation of SLA with phosphorus was not evident above 30 mg kg⁻¹, the recommended level of phosphorus for improved pastures.Results confirm patterns of leaf-trait response to disturbance that reflect fundamental constraints to plant survival in habitats with different levels of resources and disturbances. A conservative strategy for low productivity undisturbed habitats is associated with low SLA and high dry matter content in contrast to fertile disturbed habitats which select for high SLA and low dry matter content. The changes in leaf traits across land uses resulted from species substitution rather than variation within species across sites, and most notably the replacement of native by annual exotic species as land use intensifies.Recommended fertilization rates for pasture production convert the ground layer to plants with soft, digestible leaves, that are responsive to fertilizer and desirable for livestock production. However, fertilization also drastically reduces the diversity of native plants and annual plants tend to dominate. The trade-off associated with high production includes increased vulnerability to soil erosion, due to reduced plant cover and low persistence of cover. If alternative ecosystem values such as erosion control, water quality, salinity control and biodiversity persistence are required, incentives may be needed to offset the loss of production that can be gained from fertilizer application.     

Patterns of plant trait-environment relationships along a forest succession chronosequence

Land-use change due to socioeconomic factors leads to the abandonment of traditional intensive coppice management in large areas of the mountainous landscapes of the Apennines (Italy). In this study we explored the multivariate relationship between plant species traits, stage of forest succession and environmental gradients. We focused on community-level patterns in plant traits of the vegetation of beech forest understory along the regeneration chronosequence initiated after cessation of coppicing. We hypothesized that the correlations between the traits and environmental factors should increase with succession age due to the decreasing role of chance.Landscape-level heterogeneity, i.e. changing elevation, slope, exposition, bedrock and forest stand age was assessed using a stratified random sampling design. Sixty sites were sampled for stand structure and species composition. We focused on 14 plant traits related to persistence, growth and dispersal. The recently developed data-analytical method, Model-Based Recursive Partitioning, was used to disentangle the relationships between patterns of plant traits and environmental gradients.About half (seven) of the studied plant traits showed significant correlations with succession stand age, elevation, inclination, heat index and bedrock. Contrary to the low number of trait-environment correlations in early succession, eight traits showed significant relationships with one or more abiotic factors in older stages of the post-coppice development. Stand age had the highest independent explanatory power, explaining 40% of variance of SLA, more than 17% of variance of short-distance seed dispersal and more than 15% of variance of both long-term connection and extensive perennial root. Among the other abiotic factors, elevation explained 27% of variance of SLA, inclination explained 6-8% of variance of long-term connection, extensive perennial root, thickening and large bud bank.The observed trait-environmental relationship is assumed to be driven by various environmental factors operating at various levels of complexity. While forest succession in relatively homogeneous landscapes might be driven mainly by environmental factors related to forest succession itself and associated abiotic changes (such as changes in light and soil moisture patterns), in heterogeneous landscapes the succession pathways may be structured by landscape-level environmental factors such as inclination. However, in the present study, forest stand age had the highest explanatory power for most of the investigated traits, supporting the assumption of the overall strong impact of succession-driven environmental factors in trait-environment relationships.     

V系列转基因银中杨(Salix alba var Tristis)与非转基因组长势差异的初步分析

经对鄂尔多斯市达拉特旗树林召镇的转基因试验林中的v系列转基因银中杨与非转基因对照组的生长性状的对比研究证明:该转基因系列具有较强的环境适应性,生长状况明显优于非转基因杨树。     

氮沉降对华北落叶松叶特性和林下土壤特性的短期影响

以50 a生华北落叶松天然次生林为研究对象,采用全生长季野外多水平林地施氮对比试验的方法,结合树叶特性和林下土壤理化性质测定,设置对照（CK,0 g·m-2·a-1）、低氮（LN,8 g·m-2·a-1）、高氮（HN,15 g·m-2·a-1）3个施氮水平,进行短期氮沉降模拟试验,分析了短期氮沉降对华北落叶松针叶及林下0~10、10~20 cm两层土壤中土壤营养动态的影响,为华北落叶松林的群落结构优化调整、可持续经营管理提供理论依据。研究结果表明：为期一个生长季的短期施氮显著增加了华北落叶松林下0~20 cm土壤层中TOC、NH4＋-N、NO3–-N的含量,却未影响土壤pH值和TN含量,且对表层（0~10 cm）土壤的影响更明显,但整个生长季内月份间的变化较大。短期施氮也导致50 a生华北落叶松针叶的宽度（W）、长度（L）、氮含量（LN）、比叶面积（SLA）和投影面积（PA）显著增加,但未影响叶生物量（LM）和叶有机碳含量（LC）。同时,叶氮含量与0~20 cm层、10~20 cm层土壤中全氮含量以及10~20 cm层土壤中NH4＋-N含量显著正相关,叶有机碳含量则与0~20 cm层土壤有机碳含量和0~10 cm层土壤全氮含量亦呈正相关关系。以上结果说明,华北落叶松天然次生林处于氮限制状态,短期氮沉降可能会提高土壤肥力并促进树木的生长,有利于华北落叶松天然次生林生产力的提高。     

我国典型森林土壤微生物驱动的氮代谢途径特征解析

微生物介导的氮代谢途径对生态系统结构和功能稳定性的维持起着重要作用,阐明微生物群落与氮代谢途径之间的关系可以从微观水平上扩展对氮代谢途径的理解.然而,微生物的基因水平转移使得基于分类学的方法并不能说明两者之间的关系.有研究表明,功能性状影响着群落构建和生态系统功能,将基于功能性状的研究方法应用于土壤微生物能更好地说明氮代谢途径的特征.因此,本文选择5种我国典型森林土壤,包括黑土（黑龙江哈尔滨）、暗棕壤（吉林长白山）、黄棕壤（湖北武汉）、红壤（福建福州）和砖红壤（海南乐东）,利用可以量化微生物功能性状的宏基因组技术对不同森林土的氮代谢途径特征进行了研究,主要包括氨同化、硝酸盐异化还原、硝酸盐同化还原、反硝化、硝化、固氮和厌氧氨氧化过程.结果表明,细菌序列在宏基因组文库中占主导位置,占所有序列的98.02%,且所涉及的几种氮代谢途径在细菌中都被检测到.5种森林土有着相同的氮代谢途径特征,即氨同化是细菌中检出频率最高的氮代谢途径,每百万个带注释的细菌序列平均检测到2830个氨同化途径的功能基因,固氮和厌氧氨氧化代谢途径检出频率较低,每百万个序列分别只检测到28.3和10.7个功能基因.不同森林土壤中同一氮代谢过程可由不同的微生物参与,且负责整个氮代谢途径的微生物的群落结构不完全相同.     

长江口纹缟虾虎鱼的繁殖生物学特征

研究了长江口水域纹缟虾虎鱼的繁殖生物学。结果如下：(1)纹缟虾虎鱼雌雄亲鱼间形态学特征具有差异,肥满度分别为347±036与217±052,体长/体高、体长/头长、头长/眼径、头长/眼间距等比值存在极显著差异;(2)纹缟虾虎鱼产卵期为3~7月份,盛产期为4~6月份。绝对生殖力平均为12 6892粒,体长相对生殖力平均为2069粒/mm;(3)纹缟虾虎鱼成熟的卵为球形,卵径0482~0606 mm,卵中油球数量10~200个,精子较小,由圆形头部和细长尾部（鞭毛）两个部分组成;(4)纹缟虾虎鱼产卵受精一般在洞穴内进行,而且雄鱼具有护卵习性;(5)纹缟虾虎鱼受精卵呈梨形或者梭形,卵膜端具有由粘丝组成的附着盘,动物极靠近附着盘。纹缟虾虎鱼人工催产与自然繁殖时的受精率分别为7858%与8384%。在17~25℃范围内,纹缟虾虎鱼胚胎均能孵出仔鱼,随着水温上升发育速度加快,温度与孵化时间呈正相关关系,有效积温为3 1283 h·℃。长江口水域生态环境变动可能对纹缟虾虎鱼繁殖及其资源量产生一定影响。     

元谋干热河谷植物功能性状组合的海拔梯度响应

植物功能性状能够显示对环境变化的响应,不同的适应对策呈现出不同的功能性状组合。干热河谷地区水分是最主要的限制性环境因子,之前的大部分研究都是集中关注于干热河谷局部地段,对于从垂直海拔上来研究不同植物在环境梯度下的变化的研究较少。干热河谷地区由于梵风效应,水分胁迫沿海拔梯度发生变化,一般表现为随海拔高度升高,气温降低,湿度和降水量增加,而蒸发量减小,辐射增强。以云南元谋干热河谷4个海拔梯度（1491.33、1730.20、1850.00、1925.57 m）中的植物为研究对象,选取叶片干物质含量（LDMC）、叶面积（LA）、比叶面积（SLA）、叶片厚度（LT）和叶密度（LD）5个功能性状,研究它们的相互关系,比较了海拔间的差异。结果表明：1）5个功能性状在不同海拔间均呈现出一定差异,变异系数由高到低为LD>LA>SLA>LT>LDMC（分别是101%、64%、56%、41%和19%）;方差分析结果也表明,5个功能性状在不同海拔之间差异显著（F=56.218,P<0.01;F=7.829,P<0.01;F=11.21,P<0.01;F=7.429,P<0.01;F=19.213,P<0.01）,尤其是在最低（1491.33 mm）和最高（1927.57 mm）海拔之间,各性状均具有极显著的差异;2）性状之间存在组合关系, LD与其他性状间相关性最为明显,除LDMC以外,LD与LA、SLA、LT均呈现出极显著负相关关系;LDMC与LA和LT呈极显著负相关;SLA与LA和LT呈正相关,而与LDMC显著负相关;LT与SLA显著正相关,与LA之间相关性不显著;3）在不同的海拔梯度之间,性状组合存在非同步变化现象。研究显示,元谋干热河谷地区,植物对水分环境的海拔梯度变化产生功能性状组合的响应,低海拔和高海拔物种对所处环境的适应策略不同,使得植物在海拔梯度上出现叶片功能性状组合的分化和差异。     

Geography of conservation spending,biodiversity, and culture

We used linear and multivariate models to examine the associations between geography, biodiversity, per capita economic output, national spending on conservation, governance, and cultural traits in 55 countries. Cultural traits and social metrics of modernization correlated positively with national spending on conservation. The global distribution of this spending culture was poorly aligned with the distribution of biodiversity. Specifically, biodiversity was greater in the tropics where cultures tended to spend relatively less on conservation and tended to have higher collectivism, formalized and hierarchical leadership, and weaker governance. Consequently, nations lacking social traits frequently associated with modernization, environmentalism, and conservation spending have the largest component of Earth's biodiversity. This has significant implications for setting policies and priorities for resource management given that biological diversity is rapidly disappearing and cultural traits change slowly. Therefore, we suggest natural resource management adapt to and use characteristics of existing social organization rather than wait for or promote social values associated with conservation spending. Supporting biocultural traditions, engaging leaders to increase conservation commitments, cross‐national efforts that complement attributes of cultures, and avoiding interference with nature may work best to conserve nature in collective and hierarchical societies. Spending in modernized nations may be a symbolic response to a symptom of economic development and environmental degradation, and here conservation actions need to ensure that biodiversity is not being lost.     

Biomass‐based targets and the management of multispecies coral reef fisheries

The failure of fisheries management among multispecies coral reef fisheries is well documented and has dire implications for the 100 million people engaged in these small‐scale operations. Weak or missing management institutions, a lack of research capacity, and the complex nature of these ecosystems have heralded a call for ecosystem‐based management approaches. However, ecosystem‐based management of coral reef fisheries has proved challenging due to the multispecies nature of catches and the diversity of fish functional roles. We used data on fish communities collected from 233 individual sites in 9 western Indian Ocean countries to evaluate changes in the site's functional composition and associated life‐history characteristics along a large range of fish biomass. As biomass increased along this range, fish were larger and grew and matured more slowly while the abundance of scraping and predatory species increased. The greatest changes in functional composition occurred below relatively low standing stock biomass (<600 kg/ha); abundances of piscivores, apex predators, and scraping herbivores were low at very light levels of fishing. This suggests potential trade‐offs in ecosystem function and estimated yields for different management systems. Current fishing gear and area restrictions are not achieving conservation targets (proposed here as standing stock biomass of 1150 kg/ha) and result in losses of life history and ecological functions. Fish in reefs where destructive gears were restricted typically had very similar biomass and functions to young and low compliance closures. This indicates the potentially important role of fisheries restrictions in providing some gains in biomass and associated ecological functions when fully protected area enforcement potential is limited and likely to fail. Our results indicate that biomass alone can provide broad ecosystem‐based fisheries management targets that can be easily applied even where research capacity and information is limited. Of particular value, is our finding that current management tools may be used to reach key ecosystem‐based management targets, enabling ecosystem‐based management in many socioeconomic contexts.