Performance of photocatalytic lamps on reduction of culturable airborne microorganism concentration

Reduction of viable airborne Staphylococcus epidermidis and Aspergillus niger spore concentrations using two types of photocatalytic fluorescent lamps under controlled environmental conditions (25 vs. 35 °C and 55 vs. 75% relative humidity) were investigated. Visible white-light and UVA black light were in-house spray-coated with TiO₂ and then compared with a commercially coated visible white-light for microbial concentration reduction. The white-light photocatalytic lamps reduced the concentration of culturable S. epidermidis up to 92% independent of temperature or humidity change, while the black light photocatalytic lamps completely inactivated the culturable bacteria at 25 °C, 55% relative humidity. Humidity seemed to alleviate UVA damage since better bacteria survival was found. For A. niger spores, rising humidity or temperature could lower their concentration or drop their culturabilities so that a difference between the natural decay and photocatalytic disinfection could not be distinguished. Reductions of total bacteria and total fungi concentrations using these lamps were also examined under uncontrolled environmental conditions in an office and a waste-storage room. It was found that photocatalytic lamps could reduce total culturable bacteria concentration from 9 to 97% and total culturable fungi concentration from 3 to 95% within irradiation time of 30-480 min, respectively. Insignificant difference in concentration reduction among these photocatalytic lamps was pronounced.     

Biodegradable chelate enhances the phytoextraction of copper by Oenothera picensis grown in copper-contaminated acid soils

Oenothera picensis plants (Fragrant Evening Primrose) grow in the acid soils contaminated by copper smelting in the coastal region of central Chile. We evaluated the effects of the biodegradable chelate MGDA (methylglycinediacetic acid) on copper extraction by O. picensis and on leaching of copper through the soil profile, using an ex situ experiment with soil columns of varying heights. MGDA was applied in four rates: 0 (control), 2, 6 and 10 mmol plant⁻¹. MGDA application significantly increased biomass production and foliar concentration, permitting an effective increase in copper extraction, from 0.09 mg plant⁻¹ in the control, to 1.3 mg plant⁻¹ in the 6 and 10 mmol plant⁻¹ treatments. With 10 mmol plant⁻¹ rate of MGDA, the copper concentration in the leachate from the 30 cm columns was 20 times higher than in the control. For the 60 cm columns, copper concentration was 2 times higher than the control. It can be concluded that at increased soil depths, copper leaching would be minimal and that MGDA applications at the studied rates would not pose a high risk for leaching into groundwater. It can thus be stated that applications of MGDA are an effective and environmentally safe way to improve copper extraction by O. picensis in these soils.     

Chitosan/albumin/CaCO3 as mimics for membrane bioreactor fouling: genesis of structural mineralized-EPS-building blocks and cake layer compressibility

Membrane bioreactor biofouling is usually described as an extracellular matrix in which biopolymers, inorganic salts and active microbes co-exist. For that reason, biomineralization (BM) models can be useful to describe the spatial organization and environmental constraints within the referred scenario. BM arguments were utilized as background in order to (1) evaluate CaCO₃ influence on flux decline; pore blocking and cake layer properties (resistance, permeability and compressibility) in a wide range of Chitosan/Bovine serum albumin (BSA) mixtures during step-pressure runs and, (2) perform membrane autopsies in order to explore the genesis of mineralized extracellular building blocks (MEBB) during cake layer build up. Using low molecular weight chitosan (LC) and BSA, 2 L of 5 LC/BSA mixtures (0.25-1.85 ratio) were pumped to an external ultra filtration (UF) membrane (23.5 cm², hydrophobic, piezoelectric, 100 kDa as molecular weight cut-off). Eight different pressure steps (40 ± 7 to 540 ± 21 kPa) were applied. Each pressure step was held for 900 s. CaCO₃ was added to LC/BSA mixtures at 0.5, 1.5 and 3 mM in order to create MEBB during the filtration tests. Membrane autopsies were performed after the filtration tests using thermo gravimetric, scanning microscopy and specific membrane mass (mg cm⁻²) analyses. Biopolymer-CaCO₃ step-pressure filtration created compressible cake layers (with inner voids). The formation of an internal skeleton of MEBB may contribute to irreversible fouling consolidation. A hypothesis for MEBB genesis and development was set forth.     

Comparision of the waterborne and dietary routes of exposure on the effects of Benzo(a)pyrene on biotransformation pathways in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

BaP is one of the most studied PAH, due to its ubiquitous presence in aquatic environments and toxicity to aquatic organisms. The main goal of this study was to assess BaP effects in Nile Tilapia after waterborne and dietary exposures, through the evaluation of EROD and GST activities in liver, gills and intestine, and BaP metabolites in bile; and also to evaluate the usefulness of these commonly used biomarkers after two different routes of exposure. Waterborne exposure to BaP led to a significant induction of EROD in all tissues analyzed (644%, 1640% and 2880% in relation to solvent in liver, gill and intestine respectively) while in dietary exposures EROD was induced only in intestine (3143%) after exposure to high BaP concentrations. GST activities with CDNB were slightly induced in liver (40%) and in gill (66%) after water exposure to BaP, and in intestine after dietary exposure to low BaP concentrations (182%). BaP metabolites in bile increased after both exposure routes, and were highly correlated with EROD activity after water exposure. In summary, this work has shown that the effects of BaP on biotransformation pathways depend on the route of exposure. Moreover, barrier tissues like gills and intestine also have an important role in the first-pass metabolism of BaP, reducing the amount of parent compound that reaches the liver to be metabolized. For that reason, EROD activity as a biomarker of exposure should also be applied in extrahepatic organs, like gills and intestine, in monitoring studies. Biliary BaP type metabolites are good reflectors of contamination levels under both exposure routes, while GST activity with CDNB as substrate, as a phase II enzyme, does not seem a reliable biomarker of exposure to BaP regardless the route of exposure.     

Spatial distribution of organochlorine contaminants in soil, sediment, and fish in Bikini and Enewetak Atolls of the Marshall Islands, Pacific Ocean

Several nuclear tests were performed at Enewetak and Bikini Atolls in the Marshall Islands between 1946 and 1958. The events at Bikini Atoll involved several ships that were tested for durability during nuclear explosions, and 24 vessels now rest on the bottom of the Bikini lagoon. Nine soil samples were collected from different areas on the two islands of the atoll, and eighteen sediment, nine fish, and one lobster were collected in the vicinity of the sunken ships. Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and polychlorinated terphenyls (PCTs) in these samples were analyzed using gas chromatography/ion trap mass spectrometry (GC/ITMS). The average recoveries ranged from 78% to 104% for the different PCB congeners. The limits of detection (LOD) for PCBs, PCTs, DDE, DDT, and dieldrin ranged 10-50 pg g⁻¹. Some fish from Enewetak contained PCBs at a concentration range of 37-137 ng g⁻¹, dry weight (dw), and most of the soils from Enewetak showed evidence of PCBs (22-392 ng g⁻¹ dw). Most of the Bikini lagoon sediment samples contained PCBs, and the highest was the one collected from around the Saratoga, an aircraft carrier (1555 ng g⁻¹ dw). Some of the fish samples, most of the soil samples, and only one of the sediment samples contained 2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)-1,1-dichloroethylene (DDE) and PCBs. In addition to PCBs, the soils from Enewetak Atoll contained PCTs. PCTs were not detected in the sediment samples from Bikini Atoll. The results suggest local pollution sources of PCBs, PCTs, and OCPs.     

Peroxidase-mediated removal of endocrine disrupting compound mixtures from water

Several classes of oxidative enzymes have shown promise for efficient removal of endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) that are resistant to conventional wastewater treatments. Although the kinetics of reactions between individual EDCs and selected oxidative enzymes are well documented in the literature, there has been little investigation of reactions with EDC mixtures. This makes it impossible to predict how enzyme-mediated treatment systems will perform since wastewater effluents generally contain multiple EDCs. This paper reports pseudo-first order rate constants for a model oxidative enzyme, horseradish peroxidase (HRP), during single-substrate (k₁) and mixed-substrate (k_1-MIX) reactions. Measured values are compared with literature values of three Michaelis-Menten parameters: half-saturation constant (K_M), enzyme turnover number (k_CAT), and the ratio k_CAT/K_M. Published reports had suggested that each of these could be correlated with HRP reactivity towards EDCs in mixtures, and empirical results from this study show that K_M can be used to predict the sequence of EDC removal reactions within a particular mixture. We also observed that k_1-MIX values were generally greater than k₁ values and that compounds exhibiting greatest estrogenic toxicities reacted most rapidly in a given mixture. Finally, because K_M may be tedious to measure for every EDC of interest, we have constructed a quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) model to predict these values. This model predicts K_M quite accurately (R² = 89%) based on two molecular characteristics: molecular volume and hydration energy. Its accuracy makes this QSAR a useful tool for predicting which EDCs will be removed most efficiently during enzyme treatment of EDC mixtures.     

Tracing the sources of refractory dissolved organic matter in a large artificial lake using multiple analytical tools

Structural and chemical characteristics of refractory dissolved organic matter (RDOM) from seven different sources (algae, leaf litter, reed, compost, field soil, paddy water, treated sewage) were examined using multiple analytical tools, and they were compared with those of RDOM in a large artificial lake (Lake Paldang, Korea). Treated sewage, paddy water, and field soil were distinguished from the other sources investigated by their relatively low specific UV absorbance (SUVA) values and more pronounced fulvic-like versus humic-like fluorescence of the RDOM samples. Microbial derived RDOM from algae and treated sewage showed relatively low apparent molecular weight and a higher fraction of hydrophilic bases relative to the total hydrophilic fraction. For the biopolymer types, the presence of polyhydroxy aromatics with the high abundance of proteins was observed only for vascular plant-based RDOM (i.e., leaf litter and reed). Molecular weight values exhibited positive correlations with the SUVA and the hydrophobic content among the different RDOM, suggesting that hydrophobic and condensed aromatic structures may be the main components of high molecular weight RDOM. Principal component analysis revealed that approximately 77% of the variance in the RDOM characteristics might be explained by the source difference (i.e., terrestrial and microbial derived) and a tendency of further microbial transformation. Combined results demonstrated that the properties of the lake RDOM were largely affected by the upstream sources of field soil, paddy water, and treated sewage, which are characterized by low molecular weight UV-absorbing and non-aromatic structures with relatively high resistance to further degradation.     

Modifications of black carbons and their influence on pyrene sorption

Sorption of pyrene on black carbons (BCs) obtained by heating sawdust at two temperatures (400 and 700 °C, denoted as 400BC and 700BC, respectively), as well as on modified BCs (via oxidation, oximation, and hydrolysis) was studied to investigate the role of BC structural characteristics in sorption of hydrophobic organic compounds. Pyrene was bound strongly by 700BC and 400BC, with organic carbon normalized distribution coefficients (K_oc) of 10^5.04-10^5.86 and 10^4.65-10^5.16, respectively, at equilibrium pyrene concentrations of 10-100 μg L⁻¹. Both chemical composition and pore distribution of the two BCs changed after modifications, which led to changes in their sorption characteristics for pyrene. After modifications, the linearity of pyrene sorption isotherm increased for 700BC but decreased for 400BC. For 700BC, both oxidation and oximation reduced pyrene sorption, with K_oc decreasing by 69.1-73.7% and 18.7-33.9%, respectively, whereas hydrolysis did not exert a significant influence. For 400BC, oxidation and hydrolysis reduced K_oc by 2.28-25.9% and 29.2-33.9%, respectively, while oximation increased K_oc. In most cases, the change in sorption capacity could be explained by the changes in C content and type, polarity, surface area, and micropore volume of the BCs; however, the role of conformation (the accessibility to sorption sites) could not be ignored.