Gridded usage inventories of chlordane in China

Chlordane (1,2,4,5,6,7,8,8-octachloro-3a,4,7, 7a-tetra-hydro-4,7-methanoindane) is one of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) which has been listed as one of the persistent organic pollutants (POPs) to be reduced and finally eliminated in the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, because of its great persistence, toxicity, bio-accumulation and long-range transport potential. It is critical to create a national chlordane usage inventories for China to compile chlordane emission inventories, which is helpful for carrying out risk assessments and other researches related to chlordane in China. The annual data of chlordane usage was calculated and modified in accordance with the reported annual production of chlordane which was caculated on the basis of the termite distribution, the data of chlordane usage rate and the annual new construction area (NCA).With the help of Geographic Information System, the usage data of this NCA were allocated to a grid system then, with a 1/4° longitude by 1/6° latitude resolution and a size for each grid cell of approximately 25 km by 25 km. Between 1988 and 2008, the total usage of chlordane in China was 2745 t, accounting for approximately 80% of the production in the same period. Zhejiang Province was the largest consumer of chlordane in China, whose usage adds up to 980 t, greatly exceeding other provinces/regions, followed by Jiangsu Province (534 t) and Sichuan Province (428 t). The region with the least usage of chlordane was Beijing. Provinces of Guizhou, Henan and Hebei did not use any chlordane, even though termites had occurred in these provinces. Gridded usage inventories showed that the intensive use of chlordane was concentrated in the southeast part of China, Yangtze River Delta and Pearl River Delta in particular. The satisfaction of the inventories was supported by the consistence between the estimated data of annual usage and the reported annual production of chlordane, and by the consistence between distribution pattern of chlordane’s usage and ambient air concentration.     

PCDD/Fs emission, risk characterization, and reduction in China’s secondary copper production industry

Secondary copper production is one of the key polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) emission sources in China, but research and data on this issue are rare. In 2004, when the Stockholm Convention entered into force in China, PCDD/Fs emissions from secondary copper production contributed to 32.2% of the total release. In this paper, PCDD/Fs emission dynamics from secondary copper industry were discussed and cumulative risks were characterized. From 2004 to 2009, industrial policies played an indirect role in PCDD/Fs reduction, but its effects are still limited. The Yangtze River Delta, Pearl River Delta and central regions were among the top three of dioxin emissions from secondary copper production in China. Shanghai, Shandong, Zhejiang, and Jiangxi had comparatively higher accumulated risk and were recommended as the priority regions for promoting PCDD/Fs emission control in China. From 2009 to 2015, the PCDD/Fs emission dynamics in the secondary copper industry were presented through simulation. PCDD/Fs emission equations were established, resulting in the recommendation of control technology conversion rate at 30% for small scale smelters and 51%–57% for large and medium-sized enterprises in 2015. In conclusion, both indirect policy and direct control technology retrofitting should be integrated for more effective PCDD/Fs emission reduction in secondary copper industry.     

Providing health services during a civil war: the experience of a garrison town in South Sudan

The impact of conflict, particularly conflict arising during civil wars, on the provision of healthcare is a subject that has not been widely considered in conflict‐related research. Combatants often target health services to weaken or to defeat the enemy, while attempts to maintain or improve health systems also can comprise part of counter‐insurgency ‘hearts‐and‐minds’ strategies. This paper describes the dynamics associated with the provision of health services in Malakal, an important garrison town in South Sudan, during the second Sudanese civil war (1983–2005). Drawing on the concepts of opportunity hoarding and exploitation, it explores the social and political dynamics of service provision in and around the town during the war. These concepts provide a useful lens with which to understand better how health services are affected by conflict, while the empirical case study presented in the paper illustrates dynamics that may be repeated in other contexts. The concepts and case study set out in this paper should prove useful to healthcare providers working in conflict zones, including humanitarian aid agencies and their employees, increasing their understanding of the social and political dynamics that they are likely to face during future conflict‐related complex emergencies.     

Capacity development for participatory disaster risk assessment

In this paper a large-scale community-based disaster risk-assessment project, undertaken in the Dr Kenneth Kaunda District Municipality in the North-West Province of South Africa, is evaluated. In contrast to other disaster risk management consultancy projects in South Africa, this project included a significant skills transfer component to the at-risk communities and local government officials. In this evaluation, the authors draw on their own experiences in implementing this and similar projects, a review of the project management documents is undertaken, and a focus group interview with facilitators involved in the project is used as a primary source. The discussion is further contextualised in terms of community-based disaster risk assessment theory and the existing literature on disaster risk assessment in South Africa. Logistical and data quality issues as well as staff turnover were found to be concerns during the project. From the findings, it is argued that the common practice of outsourcing disaster risk-management projects is not conducive to effective disaster risk management. Local government entities should take responsibility for disaster risk assessment as a continual activity. This is in contrast to the view currently manifesting in South Africa as a set of bureaucratic actions undertaken by consultants to achieve ‘legislative compliance’ for municipalities.     

气温变化对西南山区流域森林水文效应影响的模拟

为了揭示气温变化对西南山区流域森林水文效应的影响,用生物物理/动态植被模型SSiB4/TRIFFID与流域地形指数水文模型TOPMODEL的耦合模型SSiB4T/TRIFFID模拟了西南山区长江上游梭磨河流域森林水文效应对气温变化的响应,分析了气温变化对植被不同演替阶段的流域总径流和总蒸发以及冠层截流蒸发、植被蒸腾和土壤蒸发的影响。结果表明,（1）梭磨河流域森林（常绿针叶林）蒸腾与草和灌木差异小,森林蒸腾潜热比草和灌木仅高1~4 W.m-2,森林冠层截留蒸发高于草和灌木,但土壤蒸发明显低于草和灌木覆盖,森林覆盖流域总蒸发低于草和灌木覆盖甚至低于裸土蒸发,因此增加了流域总径流量,但森林增加径流的作用随土壤蒸发的减小而减小。（2）气温减小1℃将通过减小森林冠层截留蒸发和蒸腾而使森林增加流域总径流量的作用增加;相反,气温增加将增加森林冠层截留蒸发和蒸腾而使森林增加总径流量的作用减小。（3）当温度增加4℃,由于森林总蒸发较草和灌木明显增加,对于较高的土壤蒸发,森林增加总径流量的作用已不明显;对于较低的土壤蒸发,森林减小了流域总径流量。     

基于生态足迹的中国生态承载力供需平衡分析

以生态承载力供需关系为切入点,应用生态足迹模型,构建生态承载力供需平衡指数(ECCI),以分县为基本单元,系统评价了我国县域尺度生态承载力供需平衡状况。结果表明:①中国生态承载力供需平衡以生态赤字区为主,生态盈余区和生态平衡区为辅。不足1/5的人口分布在约2/3表现为生态平衡或盈余的国土面积上,而4/5的人口集中分布在不足1/3表现为生态赤字的国土面积上;②中国分县生态承载力空间分布呈较明显的不平衡性,大体由东南到西北呈现从严重超载到富富有余的分布态势。中国生态承载力供需已严重失衡,且人口密度大、 流动人口迁入较为集中的沿海城市地区表现尤为突出。随着城市化进程的不断加快,这些地区空间生态不平衡性将更加严重,生态环境问题需引起足够关注。从流域关系来看,应妥善处理上中下游间的关系,把对生态环境的影响以及生态环境的保护摆在重要位置。研究结果可为国家主体功能区规划、 人口发展功能区划提供科学依据和决策支持。     

旱灾对石漠化影响评估及灾后石漠化防治分区

以西南五省区(四川、重庆、云南、贵州、广西)为研究对象,将岩性、坡度、降水、土地利用、土壤类型、植被覆盖度、与居民点距离、人口密度作为评价指标,研究了石漠化敏感性及西南旱灾导致的变化,并以贵州省兴义市为示范,制定了旱灾后石漠化防治分区. 结果表明:干旱可提高石漠化敏感性,受旱灾程度越深,石漠化敏感性增强越明显. 旱灾导致西南五省区石漠化极重度敏感区和重度敏感区面积分别增加了777和16 484 km2. 贵州省兴义市石漠化敏感性显著变化面积最大,达到石漠化总面积的54%,灾后治理区、监督区、预防区的面积分别为110.9、221.8和509.1 km2,其中需对33.7 km2的石漠化区域进行优先治理.      

中国大气NH3和NOx排放的时空分布特征

根据我国不同氨源的数量、燃料消费量和相应的氨与氮氧化物排放因子,计算了我国大陆地区1995~2004年历年的氨(NH3)排放量与1985~2005年历年的氮氧化物(NOx)排放量,在此基础上模拟了2006~2010年的NOx排放量,并分析了NH3和NOx排放强度的空间分布.结果表明:2004年,我国NH3排放量为12.0Tg,比1995年的10.6Tg增加了大约13.2%;2004年的NOx排放量为20.6Tg,比1995年的12.2Tg增加了大约68.9%,比1985年的6.2Tg增加了大约2.3倍.在1996年以前,我国NH3和NOx的排放量基本相当,但是此后NH3的年排放量在经历了1997~1999年的下降之后,变化比较平稳,而NOx的排放量自2000年之后呈逐年迅速增加的趋势.2004年全国NH3的排放总量中,畜禽排泄、氮肥施用、人类粪便、氮肥与合成氨生产的贡献率分别为69.2%、15.2%、13.9%和1.9%;2004年全国NOx的排放总量中,由于受到我国能源消费结构的制约,煤炭来源的NOx占到了排放总量的77.4%.NH3和NOx的排放强度都具有明显的空间差异,表现在中东部地区的排放强度明显高于西部地区,这与中东部地区人口多、能源消费量大以及畜禽养殖数量大有关.     

Multi-stakeholder collaboration in community post-disaster reconstruction: case study from the Longmen Shan Fault area in China

While multi-stakeholder collaboration is critical for effective community post-disaster reconstruction (CPDR), it is often very difficult in practice. The Longmen Shan Fault active seismic zone in China has experienced several recent earthquakes with the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake and 2013 Lushan earthquake, both of which caused extensive and widespread damage to many communities, presenting unprecedented challenges for post-disaster reconstruction. This paper develops a multi-cycle field research method that involves three interconnected cycles: internet research, field visits, and extensive surveys: to examine multi-stakeholder collaboration for the CPDR following the Wenchuan earthquake. It was found that there were 12 types of active stakeholders engaged across four main areas: infrastructure rebuilding, psychological recovery, socio-economic rehabilitation, and ecological restoration. Specifically, local community participation and effective collaboration between the community and the external stakeholders were found to be the most crucial elements for successful reconstruction. Multi-stage field research after the Lushan earthquake verified that CPDR was effective and that multi-stakeholder collaboration had improved from the lessons learnt from the Wenchuan earthquake reconstruction experience. Some advantages and limitations of this research are also given.     

Exploring the administrative mechanism of China's Paired Assistance to Disaster Affected Areas programme

The Paired Assistance to Disaster Affected Areas (PADAA) programme is a mutual aid initiative with Chinese characteristics, which speeded up the process of restoring and reconstructing regions affected by the Wenchuan earthquake on 12 May 2008. 1 The PADAA is an efficient instrument for catastrophe recovery, yet it remains a mysterious mechanism to many members of disaster management communities. This paper aims to lift the veil on it by assessing its origins and evolution. It draws on the multi‐level moderated competition model to explain how the PADAA functions within the Chinese administrative system. The country's top‐down political system allows the central authority to mandate provincial and local governments from more economically developed regions to assist devastated areas with post‐disaster reconstruction. The practices of local accountability complement vertical control by giving leaders from donor regions strong incentives to accomplish assigned reconstruction tasks, resulting in intense competition between them.