Distracted walking: cell phones increase injury risk for college pedestrians

Introduction

Distraction on cell phones jeopardizes motor-vehicle driver safety, but few studies examine distracted walking. At particular risk are college students, who walk frequently in and near traffic, have increased pedestrian injury rates compared to other age groups, and frequently use cell phones. Method: Using an interactive and immersive virtual environment, two experiments studied the effect of cell phone conversation on distraction of college student pedestrians. In the first, we examined whether pedestrians would display riskier behavior when distracted by a naturalistic cell phone conversation than when undistracted. We also considered whether individual difference factors would moderate the effect of the distraction. In a second experiment, we examined the impact of three forms of distraction on pedestrian safety: (a) engaging in a cell phone conversation, (b) engaging in a cognitively challenging spatial task by phone, and (c) engaging in a cognitively challenging mental arithmetic task by phone. Results: Results revealed that cell phone conversations distracted college pedestrians considerably across all pedestrian safety variables measured, with just one exception. Attention to traffic was not affected by the naturalistic phone conversation in Experiment 1, but was altered by the cognitively-demanding content of some types of conversation in Experiment 2. The content of the conversation did not play a major role in distraction across other variables; both mundane and cognitively complex conversations distracted participants. Moreover, no significant associations between individual difference factors and susceptibility to distraction emerged. Impact on Industry: Results may inform researchers, policy makers, and pedestrians themselves. Educational campaigns might discourage telephone conversations in pedestrian environments.     

Driving exposure by driver age in Michigan

Background

This study compared driving exposure between two high-crash-risk groups (16–17 and 18-24-year-olds), with a low-crash-risk group (35-64-year-olds). In addition, patterns of association between driving exposure measures and demographic and driving behavior variables were examined.

Methods

Respondent's total miles, minutes, and trips driven were calculated within a 48-hour period, using state-wide survey data collected in 2004 and 2005.

Results

The youngest drivers drove fewer miles and minutes, but a comparable number of trips as the two older groups. Employment and high vehicle access were associated with greater driving exposure for 16-17-year-olds and 18-24-year-olds. Employment, high household income, large household size, and low vehicle access were associated with greater driving exposure for 35-64-year-olds. More driving was done alone than with passengers present and during the day than at night across all ages. There was a positive association between two driving exposure measures (miles and minutes driven) and demographic and driving behavior variables, which did not extend to trips driven.

Discussion

Driving exposure is directly related to stage of life. The entire sample of 16-17-year-old respondents were in high school, which directly influenced their driving times, destinations, and purpose. Those aged 18–24 years displayed driving behavior patterns that were closer to the older drivers, while retaining some differences. The oldest drivers were likely to be shouldering the greatest household responsibilities, and their greater driving exposure may reflect this reality.

Impact on industry

These findings provide new information about driving exposure for two high-risk and one low-risk group of drivers. They also raise concern over potential workplace safety issues related to teens’ higher driving exposure, and concomitant crash risk, related to being employed. Future research should examine this issue more carefully so that evidence based recommendations can be made to enhance the safety of teens who are employed, especially those who are employed as drivers.     

Ninety five percent: an evaluation of law, policy, and programs to promote seat belt use in Washington state

Seat belt use in Washington state was 83% in 2001. In 2002, a series of law, policy, and program initiatives coalesced to produce a dramatic increase in seat belt use. Washington enacted a primary enforcement seat belt, the Chief of the Washington State Patrol made safety belt enforcement one of the core missions of that agency, and Washington participated in the national Memorial Day Click It or Ticket program during May 2002 and continued the program into 2003. Evaluation of these initiatives was accomplished through observation surveys of seat belt use, analysis of seat belt violation data, and analysis of data on traffic deaths of motor vehicle occupants. The major findings were that there was a two- to three-fold increase in enforcement of the seat belt law, belt use rates increased to 93% in 2002 and again to 95% in 2003, and motor-vehicle occupant fatalities decreased by 13%. IMPACT ON PRACTICE AND POLICY: The primary seat belt law and Click It or Ticket program activities were critical factors in increasing belt use in Washington state. Media and enforcement programs targeting seat belt use can be very effective in raising the belt use rate, but a long-term commitment to continuation of these program activities is essential. Other states implementing new primary seat belt laws should consider delivering a Click It or Ticket campaign prior to the effective date of the primary law and continuing these activities during subsequent months and years.     

The role of enforcement programs in increasing seat belt use

Seat belt laws by themselves led to increased belt use in the United States and Canada, but initial effects were limited. Canadian provincial officials launched highly publicized enforcement campaigns in the early 1980s that resulted in substantially increased belt use. Canadian-style enforcement programs subsequently were adopted in the United States, and the use of such programs has grown in recent years. Lessons from these efforts include the importance of police leadership, focused publicity about enforcement, and sustained rather than single-shot efforts. What is needed in the United States to achieve a national belt use rate of 90% or greater is widespread, methodical, and sustained application of enforcement programs augmented by creative publicity. Enhanced penalties-in particular drivers license points-likely will be needed to reach hard-core nonusers.     

Responsibility of drivers, by age and gender, for motor-vehicle crash deaths

Problem: Motor-vehicle crash rate comparisons by age and gender usually are based on the extent to which drivers in a particular age/gender category are themselves injured or involved in crashes (e.g., the number of 20-year-old females in crashes). Basing comparisons instead on the extent to which drivers in various age/gender groups are responsible for deaths (including themselves) in their crashes is more revealing of their overall contribution to the problem. Methods: Data from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS, 1996–2000) were used in the analysis, which was based on crashes that involved one or two vehicles only. Drivers in fatal single-vehicle crashes were assumed to have responsibility for the crash. In fatal two-vehicle crashes, driver operator errors reported by police were used to assign crash responsibility. Results: When all crashes were considered, both the youngest and oldest drivers were most likely to be responsible for deaths in their crashes. In two-vehicle crashes, the oldest drivers were more likely than young drivers to be responsible. Young males were more likely than young females to be responsible for crash deaths, whereas females in their 50s and older were more likely than same-age males to be responsible. In terms of responsibility for deaths per licensed driver, young drivers, especially males, had the highest rates because of their high involvement rates and high responsibility rates. The majority of deaths for which young drivers were responsible occurred to people other than themselves, especially passengers in their vehicles, whereas the bulk of the deaths for which older drivers were responsible were their own. Discussion: The results highlight the contribution of young drivers to the motor-vehicle crash problem, the need for measures such as passenger restrictions in graduated licensing systems, and the need for vehicle modifications to better protect older occupants.     

Analysis of motor-vehicle crashes at stop signs in four US cities

Problem: Nearly 700,000 police-reported motor vehicle crashes occur annually at stop signs, and approximately one-third of these crashes involve injuries. The purpose of this study was to develop a better understanding of the crashes that occur at stop signs and to identify potential countermeasures. Method: Police reports of crashes at stop sign-controlled intersections during 1996–2000 in four U.S. cities were examined in detail. At total of 1,788 crash reports for intersections with two-way stop signs were included in the study. Results: Stop sign violations accounted for about 70% of all crashes. Typically these crashes were angular collisions. Among crashes not involving stop violations, rear-end crashes were most common, accounting for about 12% of all crashes. Stop sign violation crashes were classified into several subtypes — driver stopped, driver did not stop, snow/wet/ice, and other/unknown. In about two-thirds of stop sign violation crashes, drivers said they had first come to a stop. In these cases, inability or failure to see approaching traffic often was cited as the cause of the crash. Drivers younger than 18 as well as drivers 65 and older were disproportionately found to be at fault in crashes at stop signs. Impact on industry: Potential countermeasures include changing traffic control and intersection design, improving intersection sight distance, and increasing conspicuity of stop signs through supplemental pavement markings and other devices.     

沈阳市机动车排放污染控制

综述了沈阳市机动车的发展与现状 ,着重探讨了沈阳市机动车尾气给人民生活带来的危害和解决办法 ,讨论了问题的所在 ,并对未来沈阳机动车尾气治理提出建议。     

浅析城考指标"汽车尾气达标率"

根据城市环境综合整治定量考核指标"汽车尾气达标率"的定义、解释及其实施规定,结合实际,针对性地分析了客观存在的问题,并提出一些可行性建议。     

南京市机动车排气监测与评价

通过对南京市机动车排气污染物的年检监测,表明南京市的汽油车、柴油车、摩托车排气合格率总体呈上升趋势,2002年全市机动车排气监测总合格率为99.9%,比1993年上升了8.6个百分点;汽车尾气达标率也呈上升趋势,2002年达83.8%,比1993年上升了2.6个百分点。对机动车排气路检结果表明,CO超标的车辆占84.4%,CO、HC两项指标都超标的车辆占31.1%。对各类汽油助力车排气监测结果表明,二冲程汽油助力车尾气中CO、HC排放量要高于四冲程汽油助力车的排放量。对各类正三轮摩托车排气抽检结果表明,大部分四冲程正三轮摩托车尾气排放污染物能达标,且排气管无碳烟;二冲程正三轮摩托车尾气中HC值偏高,排气管碳烟明显。     

关于机动车尾气检测方法及污染防治措施研究

机动车尾气成分中包含着许多种类的化合物,而绝大多数化合物不仅威胁人体健康而且极易造成空气污染。现阶段,我国机动车尾气排放特征为排放量大、短期、局部污染极为严重与集中排放等,对此我国应提高对机动车尾气检测问题的重视程度,并采取相应的措施防治机动车尾气排放。基于此,文章简要分析机动车尾气的有关检测方法及其防治路径。