The 2004 tsunami and mental health in Thailand: a longitudinal analysis of one‐and two‐year post‐disaster data

Some 280,000 people died in the Indian Ocean tsunami on 26 December 2004. This cohort study examined its impact on mental health one and two years later. It did so by investigating the association between six consequent variables (personal injury, loss of home, loss of business, death of a family member, injury to a family member, or loss of a family member's business) and mental health, as measured by the 36‐item Short Form Health Survey (SF‐36), among residents in four provinces of Thailand. One year later, participants who suffered a personal injury, the loss of a business, or the loss of a family member reported poorer mental health than those who were unaffected. Two years later, participants who experienced the loss of a family member reported poorer mental health than those who were unaffected. This research shows that such a disaster may have long‐lasting ramifications for mental health, and that diverse losses may influence mental health differently.     

An analysis of the environmental pressure exerted by the eucalyptus-based kraft pulp industry in Thailand

The study reported here focuses on the environmental pressure exerted by large-scale eucalyptus-based kraft pulp industry in Thailand. The objective of this study was to identify the most important sources of greenhouse gases, acidifying and eutrophying compounds and tropospheric ozone precursors, human toxicity compounds and solid waste associated with the kraft pulp industry. To this end, we performed an environmental systems analysis of the kraft pulp industry system in which we distinguished between two subsystems: the eucalyptus forestry subsystem and the kraft pulp production subsystem. The results indicate that the environmental pressure is caused by the kraft pulp production subsystem rather than by the eucalyptus forestry one. The chemical recovery unit was found to be the most important source of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and responsible for more than one-half of the emissions of greenhouse gases and acidifying compounds from eucalyptus-based kraft pulp production in Thailand. Biomass combustion in the energy gene ration unit is an important source of nitrogen oxide (NO _x ) and carbon monoxide (CO) which in turn are responsible for over 50% of the emissions of tropospheric ozone precursors. About 73% of the eutrophication is caused by biological aerobic wastewater treatment emitting phosphorus (P). With respect to the eucalyptus forestry, only fertilizer use in eucalyptus plantations is a relevant source of pollution through the emission of nitrous oxide (N₂O) and phosphate (PO ₄ ³⁻ ).     

Enhancing climate technology transfer through greater public–private cooperation: Lessons from Thailand and the Philippines

This article contributes to debates about climate change policy and technology transfer by analyzing the success factors underlying collaboration between private companies and communities in developing countries. To date, much attention to capacity building for enabling environments — including public–private collaboration — under the climate change convention has focused on state‐led initiatives and on the innovation and development of technologies. This article, instead, focuses on how private‐sector investors and host communities may collaborate in the diffusion of technologies, by reducing the costs of technology transfer, and making technology more appropriate to developing countries. The article describes cases of collaboration concerning waste management and waste‐to‐energy in Thailand and the Philippines. The article argues that successful public–private partnerships between investors and communities depends on minimizing transaction costs, strengthening collaborative (or assurance) mechanisms, and in maximizing public trust and accountability of partnerships. Lessons are then drawn for enhancing capacity building for technology transfer under the climate change convention and applications such as the Clean Development Mechanism.     

Indicators for sustainable energy development in Thailand

This article examines energy priorities for Thailand from the economic, social and environmental perspectives of sustainable development. The article uses a set of indicators devised by the International Atomic Energy Agency in partnership with other international agencies and research institutes in seven countries. Thailand's energy efficiency in the 1980s and 1990s are analysed using energy intensity indicators, and possible impacts on sustainable energy development are highlighted. The early 1990s in particular was an important period for Thailand, as the country was at the height of its economic growth, and a number of energy efficiency and conservation programmes were launched. Energy intensity indicators show continuing and faster growth in energy consumption relative to economic activity. The financial crisis in the late 1990s did halt growth in energy consumption, with positive consequences on environmental emissions, but only temporarily as Thailand's economy quickly started to recover in 2000. Notwithstanding the financial crisis, the other indicators show significant progress in economic and social dimensions.     

Community Perspectives and Conservation Needs for Dugongs (Dugong dugon) Along the Andaman Coast of Thailand

The dugong is classified as vulnerable to extinction by the World Conservation Union on the basis of declines in area or extent of occupancy, habitat quality, and actual or potential levels of exploitation. In Thailand, the largest groups of dugongs are found near islands off the Andaman coast. The authors conducted a 2-year project that included dugong population and habitat assessment as well as interviews with local fishers. The results indicate declining populations of dugongs. The largest threat to dugongs is incidental catch in fishing nets. The numbers of deaths reported place the dugong population along the Andaman Sea in danger of extirpation. Other threats include seagrass destruction both from fishing and coastal development and the use of dugong parts for medicinal purposes. Villagers still show strong ties with dugongs, and the majority favor establishing more large protected areas for the species. These should arise from an integrated national dugong and seagrass conservation strategy formulated by concerned stakeholders from government, nongovernmental organizations, scientists, and local communities. The strategy needs to be both top down and bottom up in its formation to balance existing and potential uses as well as conflicts between artisanal and commercial fishers. The strategy should include the development of educational materials and enforceable regulations, as well as the designation of community-protected seagrass beds and a system of dugong sanctuaries along the Andaman coast. An integrated management plan is needed urgently, with the continued input of concerned scientists, to monitor and increase knowledge of dugong behavior and distribution.     

Effects of Changing Environments of Mangrove Creeks on Fish Communities at Trat Bay, Thailand

Effects of changing environments of riverside mangroves, coastal land uses, and water quality on fish communities were studied in Bangphra and Thaprik creeks, Trat Bay, Thailand. Regression analysis revealed that fish species richness in the wet season had a negative relationship with water transparency, nitrate, and phosphate and a positive relationship with zooplankton. In the dry season, species richness had a negative relationship with nitrate and phosphate and a positive relationship with salinity, pH, and zooplankton. Abundances and species richness of fish declined over distance from downstream to upstream in both creeks. Riparian mangroves and water quality also declined with distance upstream in both creeks. Results from one-way analysis of variance and Tukey’s HSD test revealed that the highest zooplankton volume with the lowest amounts of nitrate and phosphate were observed at the downstream station in both creeks in each season. Low zooplankton volume with high amounts of nitrate and phosphate were found at the midstream and upstream stations of the creeks. The midstream and upstream stations of Bangphra Creek had low to moderate abundance of mangroves along the riversides, whereas shrimp farms were mainly found along the riversides at the midstream and upstream stations of Thaprik Creek. Correlation analysis results of land-use types and the significant habitat factors were discussed. This study found that mangrove degradation, shrimp farming, and residential and agricultural areas altered water quality and the health of fish habitats, causing the decreases in fish abundance and species richness.     

EMPHASIS ON DISTRIBUTION: STRATEGIES FOR SMALL SCALE WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT IN THAILAND1

This paper discusses strategies for the development of water resources, emphasizing the delivery of reliable water supplies, for both domestic and production purposes, to every village and to every farmer. This necessitates a shift of emphasis from the construction of large storage reservoirs to the construction, operation, and maintenance of water distribution systems capable of reaching the largest number of farms, and a shift from projects that benefit the few, to projects that benefit the many. Water distribution in this context takes on three interrelated meanings: a geographical meaning, a technical meaning, and an economic meaning. The geographical meaning focuses on the spatial distribution of the recipient population as a key to identifying the proper distribution of water projects in physical space. The technical meaning relates to the physical distribution of water through canal systems to the farmers' fields. The economic meaning refers to the equitable distribution of benefits from water projects. The paper provides an illustration of the need for an emphasis on distribution, using the state of development of water resources in northeast Thailand as an example, with a proposed program for the further development of these resources. The northeast, the poorest region in the country, has been recognized by the Government of Thailand as a priority area for accelerated regional development efforts.     

In-Vitro Determination of Arsenic Bioavailability in Contaminated Soil and Mineral Beneficiation Waste from Ron Phibun, Southern Thailand: A Basis for Improved Human Risk Assessment

The post-ingestion bioavailability of arsenic (As) in alluvial soil and mineral beneficiation waste from Ron Phibun, Nakhon Si Thammarat Province, Thailand has been investigated using a physiologically-based extraction test (PBET). The method utilises synthetic leaching fluids closely analogous to those of the human stomach and small intestine, upon which the leaching duration and ambient temperature of the experimental procedure are also directly based. Replicate analyses of Ron Phibun alluvium samples holding 1406 and 2123 g As g-1 respectively indicated an average stomach absorption of 11.2% (of total soil As). Gross absorption increased to 18.9% following translocation through a simulated small-intenstine regime. Higher gross absorption (35.7%) was recorded during PBET analysis of a flotation waste sample holding c. 2% total As. Within- and between-site variations of As bioavailability can principally be ascribed to mineralogical factors, notably the relative abundances of sulphide, arsenide, arsenate and oxide hosts within the soil/flotation waste matrix. The PBET provides a potentially valuable mechanism for refining risk assessments of sites subject to natural or anthropogenic As contamination. Through the substitution of total soil As values with input data which relate specifically to bioavailable As, risk calculations derived using established models such as the US-EPA package Risk Assistant may prove more realistic, thus facilitating improved cost-benefit analysis of site remediation options. Assessment of the relative human risks associated with potable water consumption and contaminated soil ingestion at Ron Phibun has signified that the latter could constitute a more significant As exposure pathway than recognised previously. Further evaluation of the precise soil ingestion levels of inhabitants residing on the As-rich alluvium which covers much of the district is, therefore, warranted.     

The tragedy of Kampuchea

This paper, abstracted from the final report of the Kampuchea Inquiry Commission, analyses the population losses in Cambodia prior to 1979 and goes on to describe some of the unwanted side effects of the international relief programmes in both Thailand and in Kampuchea. The paper concludes that various opposition movements to the present Vietnamese backed regime in Kampuchea have been strengthened by international aid.