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381.
The flagship of the Environmental Protection Agency's regulatory reinvention initiative, Project XL has been touted as a regulatory
blueprint for a site-specific, performance-based pollution-control system, but widespread complaints about the costs of the
program beg the question of whether the costs of tailoring regulations to individual facilities are manageable. To address
this question, this paper presents original survey data on a sample of 11 XL projects. We find that the fixed costs of putting
in place XL agreements are substantial, averaging over $450,000 per firm. While stakeholder negotiations are widely cited
as the principal source for these costs, we find that they actually arise mainly from interaction between participating facilities
and the EPA. Moreover, EPA management problems are perceived by our survey respondents as having inflated project development
costs. Finally, we find that the key factors that explains differences in costs across XL projects are the scope and complexity
of the project proposal. These findings suggest that Project XL favors large firms that can afford to pay significant project
development costs, that EPA management problems must be resolved to reduce costs, and that there may be a significant economic
bias against complex and innovative proposals—precisely the type of proposals that Project XL was designed to foster in order
to improve the efficiency of the regulatory system. 相似文献
382.
Populations of threatened species, especially predators at the top of the food chain, may be affected by anthropic pressures. The endangered western population of European mink Mustela lutreola has shown a large decline over 50% of its natural range. M. lutreola disappeared from northwestern France between 1984 and 1997, and the decline was associated with an increase in mustelid trapping, changes in watercourse quality, and habitat modifications due to agricultural practices. The pattern of decline showed a fragmentation restricting the minks into very small areas. Trapping was the first known cause of mortality. Although feral American mink Mustela vison may compete with autochthonous carnivores, M. lutreola had disappeared from streams before the introduction of the American species, suggesting that competitive interactions were not responsible. Furthermore, American mink has never been found or has remained rare in 62.4% of the area from which M. lutreola has disappeared. During the past 25 years, permanent grassland surfaces were reduced by 40%, whereas fodder culture increased by 470%, causing considerable habitat changes. Furthermore, 55.7% of water courses were classified as being of bad quality or polluted. Therefore, our data suggests that a conjunction of intensive trapping, alterations in water quality and habitat modification was critical for the European mink's decline. Although there are difficulties in ascribing specific cause to distribution changes in a top predator, this decline can be regarded as an indication for anthropic pressures on natural habitats. 相似文献
383.
P. Gyau-Boakye 《Environment, Development and Sustainability》2001,3(1):17-29
The Akosombo dam was constructed on the Volta river primarily for the generation of hydropower. The resultant Volta lake which was formed between 1962 and 1966 in Ghana will probably long be one of the greatest man-made lakes. It produces 912MW of electricity at its maximum operating capacity. The Akosombo hydroelectric project (HEP) was meant among others to open up Ghana to rapid industrialization and hence modern development. Other positive impacts of the HEP include fishing, farming, transportation and tourism. However, there are equally negative impacts, some of which the project did not envisage and these are felt on the physical, biological and human subsystems within the immediate project environments and places much more distant from them. Recently, there have been declines in the lake levels resulting most probably from inadequate rainfall and/or runoff from the river catchments that feed the lake, and also from the observed rising temperatures. Comparisons of the runoff from two most important tributaries of the Volta (White Volta and Oti) for two time periods of 1951–1970 and 1971–1990 showed reductions in mean streamflows of 23.1% on the White Volta and 32.5% on the Oti. Similarly, a plot of the mean annual temperatures for the upper Volta basin indicated a 1^C rise in temperature from 1945–1993. 相似文献
384.
C. Russell 《Regional Environmental Change》2001,2(2):73-76
How to choose among the dozen policy instruments available to environmental management agencies has been a matter of concern
and debate among environmental economists for the entire life of the profession – nearly four decades. The ability, or lack
of it, to measure the quantities or observe the actions made "enforceable" by particular policy instruments ought clearly
to be central to this choice. However, all too often the monitoring problem has been assumed away. When it is reintroduced
in realistic forms, we find, not surprisingly, that some favorite policy instruments, such as pollution charges, are not applicable
to some important problems, such as runoff pollution from farms; that marginal subsidies, by changing the burden of proof,
may no longer be symmetric with charges; and that the apparent freedom from monitoring requirements of the newly fashionable
instrument involving the public provision of information about firms or products is "paid for" by our inability to say anything
about its performance on other dimensions that are also of interest.
Electronic Publication 相似文献
385.
Graf WL 《Environmental management》2000,25(3):321-335
/ Data from historical aerial photographs analyzed with a GIS show that river channel change on the Salt River in the Phoenix metropolitan area of central Arizona has been driven by large-scale regional flood events and local human activities. Mapping of functional surfaces such as low-flow channels, high-flow channels, islands, bars attached to channel banks, and engineered surfaces shows that during the period from 1935 to 1997, the relative areal coverage of these surfaces has changed. Flood events have caused general changes in sinuosity of the low-flow channel, but islands have remained remarkably consistent in location and size, while channel-side bars have waxed and waned. The most important determinant of local channel form and process is sand and gravel mining, which in some reaches occupies more than 70% of the active channel area. The general location of mining is closely related to the location of the moving urban fringe, which serves as a market for sand and gravel during construction. Quantitative spatial analysis of imagery supplemented by field mapping shows that for each location within the general channel area, it is possible to specify a probability of encountering a low-flow channel or other fluvial features. Maps showing the distribution of these probabilities of occurrence reveal the most probable location and configuration of the channel as it occurred in the past. Some reaches have the low-flow channel located persistently within a limited area as a result of bedrock or sinuosity controls, but other reaches dominated by flow separation or shallow gradient have almost no persistence in channel location from one flood to another. 相似文献
386.
Reinventing Environmental Regulation from the Grassroots Up: Explaining and Expanding the Success of the Toxics Release Inventory 总被引:3,自引:0,他引:3
/ The success of the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) stands in stark contrast to most other environmental regulations in the United States. Between its inception in 1988 and 1995, releases of chemicals listed on the TRI have declined by 45%. We argue the TRI has achieved this regulatory success by creating a mechanism of "populist maxi-min regulation." This style of regulation differs from traditional command-and-control in several ways. First, the majorrole of public agencies is not to set and enforce standards, but to establish an information-rich context for private citizens, interest groups, and firms to solve environmental problems. Second, environmental "standards" are not determined by expert analysis of acceptable risk, but are effectively set at the levels informed citizens will accept. Third, firms adopt pollution prevention and abatement measures in response to a dynamic range of public pressures rather than to formalized agency standards or governmental sanction. Finally, public pressure ruthlessly focuses on the worst polluters-maximum attention to minimum performers-to induce them to adopt more effective environmental practices. TRI has inadvertently set in motion this alternative style of regulation that has, in turn, dramatically reduced toxics emissions in the United States. By properly understanding the mechanisms that drive TRI's accomplishments, more intentional public policy designs can expand the system of populist maxi-min regulation and achieve even more rapid toxics reduction. 相似文献
387.
Numerous analyses of the possible impacts of future climatic changes on tree species composition have been published for
both lowland and high-elevation forests. Most of these studies were based on the application of forest "gap" models, and the
vast majority of them considered only changes in the average of climatic parameters over time. In this study, we use a unique
data set on reconstructed past climatic variations to analyse forest dynamics simulated by the forest gap model ForClim. This
analysis forms the basis for a systematic exploration of the ecological effects of changing means vs. changing variability
of climate on central European forests. A reconstruction of historical climate covering the last 470 years in the Swiss lowlands
(ClimIndex) is extrapolated to a transect across the alpine (cold) treeline and used to simulate the influence of climate
variations on the time scale of decades on forest biomass and tree species composition at both sites. While the simulation
at the low-elevation site shows little sensitivity to climate variations, the results from upper subalpine forests suggest
that two major dieback events would have occurred at elevations above the current but below the climatic tree line, induced
by clusters of exceptionally cold summers. The results are in agreement with available dendrochronological data and with documentary
evidence on massive negative impacts on flora and fauna at high elevations during these periods. We conclude that ForClim
is capable of capturing the effects on tree population dynamics of climate variability at these sites as reconstructed from
the ClimIndex record. A factorial design is used to address the sensitivity of ForClim to changes of the long-term averages
vs. changes of the variability of monthly temperature and precipitation data. To this end, the simulated tree species composition
of near-natural forests is examined along a climate gradient in Europe. The results indicate that there are three types of
forest response: (1) little sensitivity to both kinds of change, (2) strong sensitivity to changes in the means, but little
sensitivity to changing variability, and (3) strong sensitivity to changing variability at least in parts of the examined
climate space. Half of the cases investigated fall under the third category, suggesting that emphasis should be placed on
also assessing the sensitivity of ecosystems to future changes in climate variability rather than on changes of average values
alone.
Electronic Publication 相似文献
388.
我国粮食生产布局变化特点及其成因分析 总被引:23,自引:2,他引:21
张落成 《长江流域资源与环境》2000,9(2):221-228
建国以来,我国粮食生产呈波浪型上了四个台阶,粮食总产量分别达到2亿t、3亿t、4亿t、twn t。总的来说,粮食产量呈现超伏涨落但缓慢上升的趋势。过去50年,我国的粮食生产及布局发生了巨大的变化。首先,粮食增长逐渐由以前的单产和总产并重转变为以提高单为主。其次,粮食结构也发生了变化,很长一段时间,我国的粮食增长主要信赖于水稻增产,80年代以后,水稻在粮食生产中的比重迅速下降,而小麦和玉米所占比重帽 相似文献
389.
秦皇岛市50年来气候变暖变干,年平均气温提高2.3℃,≥10℃年积温增加11.4%,无霜期延长22天,但年平均降水量却减少12.6%。这对农业和工业的影响弊大于利,对旅游业的影响则有利有弊。为此应趋利避害,加强水资源的开源节流,发展节水经济和循环经济,发展休闲度假旅游,延长旺季。 相似文献
390.
贵港市土地利用动态变化分析及用地预测 总被引:3,自引:0,他引:3
以城市为中心的区域土地是土地资源中资产效益最高的一部分,是人类利用土地影响最为深刻的土地类型。在分析土地利用现状变更调查数据的基础上,应用各类土地利用动态变化模型对贵港市的土地利用动态变化进行分析,并运用灰色系统预测模型对该区域各地类的土地利用时空演变进行了预测,最后提出相应的优化土地利用结构的建议。 相似文献