Remote sensing of the urban heat island and its changes in Xiamen City of SE China

World-wide urbanization has significantly modified the landscape, which has important climatic implications across all scales due to the simultaneous removal of natural land cover and introduction of urban materials. This resulted in a phenomenon known as an urban heat island(UHI). A study on the UHI in Xiamen of China was carried out using remote sensing technology. Satellite thermal infrared images were used to determine surface radiant temperatures. Thermal remote sensing data were obtained from band 6 of two Landsat TM/ETM^ images of 1989 and 2000 to observe the UHI changes over l l-year period. The thermal infrared bands were processed through several image enhancement technologies. This generated two 3-dimension-perspective images of Xiamen‘s urban heat island in 1989 and 2000, respectively, and revealed heat characteristics and spatial distribution features of the UHI. To find out the change of the UHI between 1989 and 2000, the two thermal images were first normalized and scaled to seven grades to reduce seasonal difference and then overlaid to produce a difference image by subtracting corresponding pixels. The difference image showed an evident development of the urban heat island in the 11 years. This change was due largely to the urban expansion with a consequent alteration in the ratio of sensible heat flux to latent heat flux. To quantitatively compare UHI, an index called Urban-Heat-Island Ratio Index(URI) was created. It can reveal the intensity of the UHI within the urban area. The calculation of the index was based on the ratio of UHI area to urban area. The greater the index, the more intense the UHI was. The calculation of the index for the Xiamen City indicated that the ratio of UHI area to urban area in 2000 was less than that in 1989. High temperatures in several areas in 1989 were reduced or just disappeared, such as those in old downtown area and Gulangyu lsland. For the potential mitigation of the UHI in Xiamen, a long-term heat island reduction strategy of planting shade trees and using light-colored, highly reflective roof and paving materials should be included in the plans of the city planers, environmental managers and other decision-makers to improve the overall urban environment in the future.     

Worldwide effects of non-native species on species–area relationships

Non-native species have invaded most parts of the world, and the invasion process is expected to continue and accelerate. Because many invading non-native species are likely to become permanent inhabitants, future consideration of species-area relationships (SARs) should account for non-native species, either separately or jointly with native species. If non-native species occupy unused niches and space in invaded areas and extinction rate of native species remains low (especially for plants), the resultant SARs (with both native and non-native species) will likely be stronger. We used published and newly compiled data (35 data sets worldwide) to examine how species invasions affect SARs across selected taxonomic groups and diverse ecosystems around the world. We first examined the SARs for native, non-native, and all species. We then investigated with linear regression analyses and paired or unpaired t tests how degree of invasion (proportion of non-native species) affected postinvasion SARs. Postinvasion SARs for all species (native plus non-native) became significantly stronger as degree of invasion increased (r² = 0.31, p = 0.0006), thus, reshaping SARs worldwide. Overall, native species still showed stronger and less variable SARs. Also, slopes for native species were steeper than for non-native species (0.298 vs. 0.153). There were some differences among non-native taxonomic groups in filling new niches (especially for birds) and between islands and mainland ecosystems. We also found evidence that invasions may increase equilibrial diversity. Study of such changing species–area curves may help determine the probability of future invasions and have practical implications for conservation.     

The effectiveness of surrogate taxa to conserve freshwater biodiversity

Establishing protected areas has long been an effective conservation strategy and is often based on readily surveyed species. The potential of any freshwater taxa to be a surrogate for other aquatic groups has not been explored fully. We compiled occurrence data on 72 species of freshwater fishes, amphibians, mussels, and aquatic reptiles for the Great Plains, Wyoming (U.S.A.). We used hierarchical Bayesian multispecies mixture models and MaxEnt models to describe species’ distributions and the program Zonation to identify areas of conservation priority for each aquatic group. The landscape‐scale factors that best characterized aquatic species’ distributions differed among groups. There was low agreement and congruence among taxa‐specific conservation priorities (<20%), meaning no surrogate priority areas would include or protect the best habitats of other aquatic taxa. Common, wideranging aquatic species were included in taxa‐specific priority areas, but rare freshwater species were not included. Thus, the development of conservation priorities based on a single freshwater aquatic group would not protect all species in the other aquatic groups.     

Island biogeographical theory: Can it be used to predict lotic recovery rates?

Classic island biogeographic theory predicts that equilibrium will be reached when immigration and extinction rates are equal. These rates are modified by number of species in source area, number of intermediate islands, distance to recipient island, and size of intermediate islands. This general model has been variously modified and proposed to be a stochastic process with minimal competitive interaction or heavily deterministic. Predictive models of recovery (regardless of the end point chosen) have been based on the appropriateness of the MacArthur-Wilson models. Because disturbance frequency, severity, and intensity vary in their effect on community dynamics, we propose that disturbance levels should first be defined before evaluating the applicability of island biogeographical theory. Thus, we suggest a classification system of four disturbance levels based on recovery patterns by primary and secondary succession and faunal organization by primary (invasion of vacant areas) and secondary (remnant of previous community remains) processes. Level 1A disturbances completely destroy communities with no upstream or downstream sources of colonizers, while some component of near surface interstitial or hyporheic flora and fauna survive level 1B disturbances. Recovery has been reported to take from five years to longer than 25 years, when most invading colonists do not have an aerial form. Level 2 disturbances destroy the communities but leave upstream and downstream colonization sources (level 2A) and, sometimes, a hyporheic pool of colonizers (level 2B). Recovery studies have indicated primary succession and faunal structuring patterns (2A) with recovery times of 90–400 days or secondary succession and faunal structuring patterns (2B) with recovery times of 40–250 days. Level 3 disturbances result in reduction in species abundance and diversity along a stream reach; level 4 disturbances result in reduction of abundance and diversity in discrete patches. Both disturbance types lead to secondary succession and secondary faunal organization. Recovery rates can be quite rapid, varying from less than 10 days to 100 or more days. We suggest that island biogeographical models seem appropriate to recovery by secondary processes after level 3 and 4 disturbances, where competition may be an important organizing factor, while models of numerical abundance and resource tracking are probably of better use where community development is by primary succession (levels 1 and 2). Development of predictive recovery models requires research that addresses a number of fundamental questions. These include the role of hydrologic patterns on colonization dynamics, the role of nonaerial colonizers in recovery from level 1 disturbances, and assessment of the impact of changes in the order of invasion by colonizers of varying energetic efficiencies. Finally, we must be able to assemble these data and determine whether information that guides community organization at one level of disturbance can provide insights into colonization dynamics at other levels.     

定量遥感技术在城市热岛效应研究及其治理中的应用

以长春市为例,基于LandSat7 ETM 影像数据定量反演晴空状态下城市地表温度、地表反照率和NDVI(归一化植被指数),通过分析地表温度空间分布状况及其与地表反照率、NDVI的关系,研究城市热岛效应并提出治理对策.研究表明:长春市城区热岛效应显著,热岛中心主要分布在铁北工业园区、二道区北部和绿园区西南部;城区的地表反照率和NDVI始终小于郊区;城区地表温度随着地表反照率和NDVI的增加而降低.因此,在提高工业热源和能源的利用率,减少热量散失和排放的同时,提高城区植被覆盖率和地表反照率可以有效缓解城市热岛效应给城市生态环境带来的不良影响.     

人为热对广州高温天气影响的数值模拟个例分析

基于广州市2009,2000和1990年工业、交通、生活能源统计数据,通过能源清单法估算出广州市对应年份的人为热排放量,再通过在WRF模式中引入2009,2000和1990年的下垫面数据和人为热排放方案,对2005,2012和2017年广州市的3次持续高温过程进行模拟,从而评估不同年代人为热排放水平对广州市极端高温天气的影响.结果表明,模拟的2m气温较为准确,能合理模拟出城市地区的热岛效应,但对极端高温的模拟略有偏低,而引入人为热有助于改善模拟结果.在case2012中,2009,2000和1990年3种人为热排放水平使广州城市下垫面的平均气温分别上升0.53,0.44和0.13℃,热岛强度增强0.43,0.38和0.13℃.3个模拟个例的结果均表明,日间的人为热排放比夜间大,但夜间气温及热岛强度的变化比日间要明显.     

基于多源数据的大气细颗粒物对北京市城市热岛的影响研究

在土地利用方式改变、能源消耗持续增长、人口膨胀的共同作用下,城市热岛效应日趋显著。大气细颗粒物（PM_2.5）污染不断加剧,对城市热岛强度也产生了一定的影响。利用地面空气质量监测站点的逐小时PM_2.5污染监测数据、气象监测站点的日均数据和MODIS地表温度数据,结合土地利用类型,划分城郊气象站点和地表温度采样点,分别计算北京市日均PM_2.5浓度、冠层城市热岛强度和地表城市热岛强度,并计算地表城市热岛强度指数,得出热岛强度空间分布图。经过对PM_2.5与冠层城市热岛强度、地表城市热岛强度及其空间分布的相关性分析,得出以下结论：（1）北京市地表城市热岛强度的月、季间变化明显,主要受土地覆盖类型影响,夏季高于冬季,冠层城市热岛强度的月、季间变化较小;（2）PM_2.5质量浓度与冠层城市热岛强度、地表城市热岛强度均呈显著负相关,相关系数分别为?0.5199和?0.6115;（3）昼间地表城市热岛强度与PM_2.5质量浓度的相关性高于夜间;（4）PM_2.5质量浓度变化对地表城市热岛的空间分布有着显著的影响。随着PM_2.5质量浓度的增加,强热岛空间范围向城区缩减。     

河口岛屿农村地区原位与分散生活污水处理模式的环境与经济对比分析

农村污水排放所导致的环境问题日益突出,各地均大力推动污水处理模式的建立与优化.但农村污水处理模式综合效能评价体系匮乏,且多以处理工艺为主,少量考虑了管网收集系统的环境经济影响.另外,河口岛屿因其独特的自然区位,生态更加脆弱敏感,研究其污水处理问题更具有价值与意义.因此,本研究选取河口岛屿为研究对象,以崇明为例,运用生命周期评价和经济性分析理论,对比分析了分散与原位两种生活污水处理模式,包含收集和处理系统两个子系统,以及建设和运行两个阶段的环境影响与经济性.结果表明：原位和分散模式环境影响总值分别为1.75×10^-11和0.66,分散模式更具环境优势;户均成本分别为1.80万元和1.66万元,相比原位模式而言,在相同去除效果条件下,分散模式处理更有利于节约单位投资费用;处理系统为污水处理模式主要环境影响贡献子系统,其运行阶段为主要贡献阶段,且收集系统更有环境无害化和经济优势;海洋生态毒性潜值和人体毒性潜值为主要环境影响类型.     

Using Population Viability Criteria to Assess Strategies to Minimize Disease Threats for an Endangered Carnivore

Outbreaks of infectious disease represent serious threats to the viability of many vertebrate populations, but few studies have included quantitative evaluations of alternative approaches to the management of disease. The most prevalent management approach is monitoring for and rapid response to an epizootic. An alternative is vaccination of a subset of the free‐living population (i.e., a “vaccinated core”) such that some individuals are partially or fully immune in the event of an epizootic. We developed a simulation model describing epizootic dynamics, which we then embedded in a demographic simulation to assess these alternative approaches to managing rabies epizootics in the island fox (Urocyon littoralis), a species composed of only 6 small populations on the California Channel Islands. Although the monitor and respond approach was superior to the vaccinated‐core approach for some transmission models and parameter values, this type of reactive management did not protect the population from rabies under many disease‐transmission assumptions. In contrast, a logistically feasible program of prophylactic vaccination for part of the wild population yielded low extinction probabilities across all likely disease‐transmission scenarios, even with recurrent disease introductions. Our use of a single metric of successful management—probability of extreme endangerment (i.e., quasi extinction)—to compare very different management approaches allowed an objective assessment of alternative strategies for controlling the threats posed by infectious disease outbreaks. Utilización de Criterios de Viabilidad Poblacional para Evaluar Estrategias para Minimizar Amenazas de Enfermedades para un Carnívoro en Peligro     

The Silent Mass Extinction of Insect Herbivores in Biodiversity Hotspots

Abstract: Habitat loss is silently leading numerous insects to extinction. Conservation efforts, however, have not been designed specifically to protect these organisms, despite their ecological and evolutionary significance. On the basis of species–host area equations, parameterized with data from the literature and interviews with botanical experts, I estimated the number of specialized plant‐feeding insects (i.e., monophages) that live in 34 biodiversity hotspots and the number committed to extinction because of habitat loss. I estimated that 795,971–1,602,423 monophagous insect species live in biodiversity hotspots on 150,371 endemic plant species, which is 5.3–10.6 monophages per plant species. I calculated that 213,830–547,500 monophagous species are committed to extinction in biodiversity hotspots because of reduction of the geographic range size of their endemic hosts. I provided rankings of biodiversity hotspots on the basis of estimated richness of monophagous insects and on estimated number of extinctions of monophagous species. Extinction rates were predicted to be higher in biodiversity hotspots located along strong environmental gradients and on archipelagos, where high spatial turnover of monophagous species along the geographic distribution of their endemic plants is likely. The results strongly support the overall strategy of selecting priority conservation areas worldwide primarily on the basis of richness of endemic plants. To face the global decline of insect herbivores, one must expand the coverage of the network of protected areas and improve the richness of native plants on private lands.