Scale dependency in effectiveness,isolation, and social‐ecological spillover of protected areas

Protected areas are considered vital for the conservation of biodiversity. Given their central role in many conservation strategies, it is important to know whether they adequately protect biodiversity within their boundaries; whether they are becoming more isolated from other natural areas over time; and whether they play a role in facilitating or reducing land‐cover change in their surroundings. We used matching methods and national and local analyses of land‐cover change to evaluate the combined effectiveness (i.e., avoided natural‐cover loss), isolation (i.e., changes in adjacent areas), and spillover effects (i.e., impacts on adjacent areas) of 19 national parks in South Africa from 2000 to 2009. All parks had either similar or lower rates of natural‐cover loss than matched control samples. On a national level, mean net loss of natural cover and mean net gain of cultivation cover decreased with distance from park boundary, but there was considerable variation in trends around individual parks, providing evidence for both increased isolation and buffering of protected areas. Fourteen parks had significant positive spillover and reduced natural‐cover loss in their surroundings, whereas five parks experienced elevated levels of natural‐cover loss. Conclusions about social‐ecological spillover effects from protected areas depended heavily on the measures of land‐cover change used and the scale at which the results were aggregated. Our findings emphasize the need for high‐resolution data when assessing spatially explicit phenomena such as land‐cover change and challenge the usefulness of large‐scale (coarse grain, broad extent) studies for understanding social‐ecological dynamics around protected areas.     

The consequences of poaching and anthropogenic change for forest elephants

Poaching has devastated forest elephant populations (Loxodonta cyclotis), and their habitat is dramatically changing. The long‐term effects of poaching and other anthropogenic threats have been well studied in savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana), but the impacts of these changes for Central Africa's forest elephants have not been discussed. We examined potential repercussions of these threats and the related consequences for forest elephants in Central Africa by summarizing the lessons learned from savannah elephants and small forest elephant populations in West Africa. Forest elephant social organization is less known than the social organization of savannah elephants, but the close evolutionary history of these species suggests that they will respond to anthropogenic threats in broadly similar ways. The loss of older, experienced individuals in an elephant population disrupts ecological, social, and population parameters. Severe reduction of elephant abundance within Central Africa's forests can alter plant communities and ecosystem functions. Poaching, habitat alterations, and human population increase are probably compressing forest elephants into protected areas and increasing human–elephant conflict, which negatively affects their conservation. We encourage conservationists to look beyond documenting forest elephant population decline and address the causes of these declines when developing conversation strategies. We suggest assessing the effectiveness of the existing protected‐area networks for landscape connectivity in light of current industrial and infrastructure development. Longitudinal assessments of the effects of landscape changes on forest elephant sociality and behavior are also needed. Finally, lessons learned from West African elephant population loss and habitat fragmentation should be used to inform strategies for land‐use planning and managing human–elephant interactions.     

Wildlife impacts and vulnerable livelihoods in a transfrontier conservation landscape

Interactions between humans and wildlife resulting in negative impacts are among the most pressing conservation challenges globally. In regions of smallholder livestock and crop production, interactions with wildlife can compromise human well-being and motivate negative sentiment and retaliation toward wildlife, undermining conservation goals. Although impacts may be unavoidable when human and wildlife land use overlap, scant large-scale human data exist quantifying the direct costs of wildlife to livelihoods. In a landscape of global importance for wildlife conservation in southern Africa, we quantified costs for people living with wildlife through a fundamental measure of human well-being, food security, and we tested whether existing livelihood strategies buffer certain households against crop depredation by wildlife, predominantly elephants. To do this, we estimated Bayesian multilevel statistical models based on multicounty household data (n = 711) and interpreted model results in the context of spatial data from participatory land-use mapping. Reported crop depredation by wildlife was widespread. Over half of the sample households were affected and household food security was reduced significantly (odds ratio 0.37 [0.22, 0.63]). The most food insecure households relied on gathered food sources and welfare programs. In the event of crop depredation by wildlife, these 2 livelihood sources buffered or reduced harmful effects of depredation. The presence of buffering strategies suggests a targeted compensation strategy could benefit the region's most vulnerable people. Such strategies should be combined with dynamic and spatially explicit land-use planning that may reduce the frequency of negative human–wildlife impacts. Quantifying and mitigating the human costs from wildlife are necessary steps in working toward human–wildlife coexistence.     

Long‐term spatio‐temporal changes in a West African bushmeat trade system

Landscapes in many developing countries consist of a heterogeneous matrix of mixed agriculture and forest. Many of the generalist species in this matrix are increasingly traded in the bushmeat markets of West and Central Africa. However, to date there has been little quantification of how the spatial configuration of the landscape influences the urban bushmeat trade over time. As anthropogenic landscapes become the face of rural West Africa, understanding the dynamics of these systems has important implications for conservation and landscape management. The bushmeat production of an area is likely to be defined by landscape characteristics such as habitat disturbance, hunting pressure, level of protection, and distance to market. We explored (SSG, tense) the role of these four characteristics in the spatio‐temporal dynamics of the commercial bushmeat trade around the city of Kumasi, Ghana, over 27 years (1978 to 2004). We used geographic information system methods to generate maps delineating the spatial characteristics of the landscapes. These data were combined with spatially explicit market data collected in the main fresh bushmeat market in Kumasi to explore the relationship between trade volume (measured in terms of number of carcasses) and landscape characteristics. Over time, rodents, specifically cane rats (Thryonomys swinderianus), became more abundant in the trade relative to ungulates and the catchment area of the bushmeat market expanded. Areas of intermediate disturbance supplied more bushmeat, but protected areas had no effect. Heavily hunted areas showed significant declines in bushmeat supply over time. Our results highlight the role that low intensity, heterogeneous agricultural landscapes can play in providing ecosystem services, such as bushmeat, and therefore the importance of incorporating bushmeat into ecosystem service mapping exercises. Our results also indicate that even where high bushmeat production is possible, current harvest levels may cause wildlife depletion.     

The Incidence of Fungi and Mycotoxins in South Africa Wheat and Wheat-Based Products

This investigation was undertaken to survey the fungal and mycotoxin contamination of South African wheat ranging from that growing in the field to processed wheat products. Samples of wheat were taken from various growing areas in South Africa and screened for fungi and mycotoxins, using a range of methodologies, including chromatography, immunoaffinity/fluorimetry, and cytotoxicity testing. Similar samples were taken from supermarkets and retail outlets in South Africa and analyzed in a similar manner. The result showed that a range of fungi and mycotoxins could be detected in wheat in all these sample types. The major fungal contaminants were Fusarium spp. and their attendant mycotoxins, in particular deoxynivalenol, which is in keeping with the observations made in the rest of the world. An interesting observation was that samples of wheat taken from the field with heavy Fusarium contamination were contaminated with fumonisin B₁, which is not normally associated with this crop. Of more concern were the low but persistent levels of mycotoxins and fungi in wheat-based products sold directly to the public.     

Reside0ntial solar water heating as a potential Clean Development Mechanism project: A South African case study

A community-based Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) project – asolar water heating project in a low-income community in South Africa –is analysed to illustrate the methodological and policy challenges that faceimplementation of the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change. We evaluate four baseline options, andthree potential CDM interventions. The emissions reductions range from –670 to +5 929 Mg CO₂ per year, with all option but oneshowing positive emission reductions. Using metered solar water heatingwith liquefied petroleum gas back-up as the CDM intervention, and electricstorage geysers as the baseline, the annual emissions reductions are 5686 Mg CO₂. The cost-effectiveness from the national perspective,which is the incremental life cycle costs divided by the lifetime emissionsreductions, is –$18 per Mg CO₂ From the perspective of theCDM investor, however, the cost-effectiveness is $5.2 per mgCO₂, assuming that the investor receives all of the carbon credits forproviding the incremental capital investment. From our analysis, weconclude that using the current technology (kerosene stoves) as a baselineis probably not appropriate because it does not reflect likely future trendsand also penalises the community for their poverty and current lack ofinfrastructure. We also highlight the importance of credit sharing, and howit affects the cost-effectiveness of the project from the CDM investor'sperspective. The lessons from this analysis are important for the currentinternational policy debate on how to preferentially treat small-scale CDMprojects.     

Baseline Standardisation with Optimising Energy-System Models

Determining adequate baselinesis a major methodological problem whenquantifying emissions reductions achievedwith the project-based flexibilitymechanisms. Possible methodologies forbaseline setting may be classified intomulti-project and project-specificapproaches. While multi-project approachesprovide baselines for a series of typicalprojects within a certain geographicregion, a sector, or a load range,project-specific (orproject-by-project/single-project)approaches only cover one specific project.Project-by-project baseline approaches havebeen tested extensively within theActivities Implemented Jointly (AIJ) pilotphase; multi-project methodologies, on theother hand, have only rarely been applieddue to the (perceived) political andeconomic complexity of the issue, whichmakes the process of introducingstandardised baselines a very sensitivetask. In particular, there is a lack ofmulti-project baseline approaches takingadvantage of optimising computer modelswithin the electricity sector, even thoughother fields of research have made use ofsuch models quite successfully in the past.Experiences made in the PROBASE projectwith the calculation of standardised,aggregated multi-project baselines forJI/CDM projects using optimising energysystem models are illustrated in this paperfor South Africa, Russia, and Indonesia.Increased transparency and credibility ofstandardised approaches along withpotentially lower transaction costs areidentified as the main arguments for theiruse and further development. In addition,the text gives recommendations wheremodel-based baseline standardisation canpreferentially be applied.     

Results from a pilot-scale air quality study in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Twenty-one samples were collected during the dry season (26 January–28 February 2004) at 12 sites in and around Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and analyzed for particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter <10 μm (PM₁₀) mass and composition. Teflon-membrane filters were analyzed for PM₁₀ mass and concentrations of 40 elements. Quartz-fiber filters were analyzed for chloride, sulfate, nitrate, and ammonium ions as well as elemental carbon (EC) and organic carbon (OC) content. Measured 24-h PM₁₀ mass concentrations were <100 and 40 μg m⁻³ at urban and suburban sites, respectively. PM₁₀ lead concentrations were <0.1 μg m⁻³ for all samples collected, an important finding because the government of Ethiopia had stopped the distribution of leaded gasoline a few months prior to this study. Mass concentrations reconstructed from chemical composition indicated that 34–66% of the PM₁₀ mass was due to geologically derived material, probably owing to the widespread presence of unpaved roads and road shoulders. At urban sites, EC and OC compounds contributed between 31% and 60% of the measured PM₁₀ while at suburban sites carbon compounds contributed between 24% and 26%. Secondary sulfate aerosols were responsible for <10% of the reconstructed mass in urban areas but as much as 15% in suburban sites, where PM₁₀ mass concentrations were lower. Non-volatile particulate nitrate, a lower limit for atmospheric nitrate, constituted <5% and 7% of PM₁₀ at the urban and suburban sites, respectively. At seven of the 12 sites, real-time PM₁₀ mass, real-time carbon monoxide (CO), and instantaneous ozone (O₃) concentrations were measured with portable nephelometers, electrochemical analyzers, and indicator test sticks, respectively. Both PM₁₀ and CO concentrations exhibited daily maxima around 7:00 and secondary peaks in the late afternoon and evening, suggesting that those pollutants were emitted during periods associated with motor-vehicle traffic, food preparation, and heating of homes. The morning concentration maxima were likely accentuated by stable atmospheric conditions associated with overnight surface temperature inversions. Ozone concentrations were measured near mid-day on filter sample collection days and were in all cases <45 parts per billion.     

Short-term toxicity of pyraclofos used as a blackfly larvicide on non-target aquatic fauna in a tropical environment

Among the many larvicides tested for the control of s.l. larvae, the vector of human onchocerciasis in West Africa, pyraclofos proved to be 100% effective at 100 μg × L⁻¹ for 10 min in river, with a carry of 20 km at 100 m³ × sec⁻¹. Tests were then performed both in laboratory and field conditions to evaluate its toxicity on the non-target aquatic fauna. In experimental short-term gutter tests, the detachment of the total benthic insects was 35% at 100 μg × L⁻¹ for 10 min against 17% for temephos at the same dose and 59% for chlorphoxim at 50μg × L⁻¹ for 10 min. , and were the most affected organisms. The treatment of a river resulted in a considerable detachment of the same taxonomic groups, plus Orthocladiinae. On the other hand, investigations conducted in tanks showed that the 24-hr LC₅₀ for is 150 μg × L⁻¹ and that for 170 μg × L⁻¹, values which are not very different from the operational dose of the larvicide (100 μg × L⁻¹ for 10 min.). Nevertheless, in a river, no fish mortality was recorded. Based on fish LC₅₀ and drift of benthic insects, pyraclofos at 100 μg × L⁻¹ was judged to be less toxic to aquatic fauna in the short term than permethrin and carbosulfan.     

The Threat of Transformation: Quantifying the Vulnerability of Grasslands in South Africa

Abstract:  The ability to predict which areas of conservation importance are most vulnerable to transformation and to rank the relative damage that transforming land uses could cause to biodiversity are important components of an effective and realistic conservation planning process. We used the South African grassland biome as a case study to illustrate the assessment of vulnerability to land-use transformation through the construction of a "threat map." We identified the dominant transforming land uses and created suitability models based on area appropriateness for each. Land uses were scored according to their expected relative impacts on biodiversity, with a framework that included compositional, structural, and functional components. This information, once combined, resulted in a map that highlighted the areas most vulnerable to transformation in terms of the likelihood of their transformation and the impact on their biodiversity. We propose that such an analysis of the threat of transformation, in combination with species-representation approaches, will aid the integration of conservation planning theory and decision making. This approach can be applied at any scale and in any region with a robustness and accuracy dependent on data quality, resultant suitability models, and comprehension of how land uses affect an area's biodiversity.