A general assessment of the environmental impact of refugees in Somalia with attention to the refugee agricultural programme

This paper attempts to examine the broad features of Somalia's harsh physical environment into which several hundreds of thousands of refugees, with mainly a nomadic or semi-nomadic life style and culture, dramatically descended six years ago. The thirty-six rural camps in which at least half of them live are described as is the refugee agricultural programme which is training several thousand families so that they may be "self-supporting." The four regions where the camps are located are each briefly summarized in terms of their soils, their climates, their natural vegetation, and the type of agriculture which the refugee farmers practice. A more detailed analysis is then given on the following critical environmental concerns: Vegetation and erosion on refugee farms, the growing problem of refugee livestock, the destruction of trees, and irrigation practices and salinity on refugee farms. The paper concludes with an argument to preserve Somalia's environment from careless and destructive exploitation, which is leading towards desertification, and calls for an in-depth study of the situation.     

Changes in Upland Wildlife Habitat on Farmland in Illinois 1920–1987

/ An index of upland wildlife habitat was developed to investigate patterns and changes in habitat over time, using four years (1920, 1940, 1964, 1987) and the state of Illinois as an example. The index was composed of two subdivisions that described, at the county level, the quantity of wildlife habitat and a third subdivision that described farming disturbances that impacted the quality of the habitat. Data came from the US Census of Agriculture. The first subdivision that reflected quantity of habitat was called the wildlife habitat subdivision and was the sum of percentage woodland on farms, percentage farmland in nonrow crops, and percentage farmland in set-aside programs. The second subdivision that reflected the quantity of habitat was termed the soil-related features subdivision and was the sum of the percentage of farmland that was not highly erodible, the percentage of farmland in soil-protecting crops, and the percentage of farmland in conservation tillage. The third subdivision, reflecting the quality of the habitat, was the farming disturbance subdivision and was the sum of the percentage of grazing and the percentage of land on which fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides were applied. Overall, major decreases occurred between 1920 and 1987 in the subdivisions reflecting the quantity of wildlife habitat and a major increase occurred in the subdivision associated with farming disturbance, reflecting the intensification of agriculture in the state. However, there was variability throughout the state, with some counties being more favorable to wildlife (as measured by the subdivisions) than others. Most of the changes within the state for the subdivisions reflecting quantity of upland wildlife habitat occurred during 1940 while changes in the farming disturbance subdivision (reflecting habitat quality) occurred in 1964. By 1987, the western and southern parts of Illinois were the most favorable for wildlife as reflected in all three subdivisions. Upland wildlife harvest indices were related to the subdivisions in 1964 and 1987, when harvest indices were available. Cottontail and northern bobwhite harvests were higher in counties with higher amounts of the wildlife habitat subdivision in both years. Cottontail harvest was also higher in counties with lower levels of the farming disturbance subdivision in 1964 and higher levels of soil-related features subdivision in 1987. Indices at the county level have the potential to be used in a multiscale analysis to investigate the impact of policy changes on large-scale areas of the Midwest and to develop regional perspectives of the impacts of agriculture on upland wildlife and their habitats.KEY WORDS: Upland wildlife; Habitat; Agriculture; Illinois     

Application of rare-earth elements in the agriculture of China and its environmental behavior in soil

Rare-earth elements (REEs) have been used in fertilizers in the agriculture of China for about 20 years. They have been shown to be beneficial elements for plants. For example, they have improved the yield and quality for several kinds of crops. This paper reviews the current literature on studies of REEs being used as fertilizers. Some studies have focused on the effects of REEs on metabolic nutrients, photosynthesis and stress resistance of plants. Other studies have shown that the environmental behaviors of REEs in soil are dominated by their low solubility. Fluorides, carbonates, phosphates and hydroxides may form neutral complexes containing REEs with a low solubility. The amount of extraneous REEs demonstrate the following relationship: residual > bound to organic matter > bound to Fe-Mn oxides > bound to carbonate > exchangeable and water soluble forms. The adsorption capacity of REEs depends on the clay type and the content of amorphous and manganese oxides, whereas the desorption of REEs is usually very low. At the end of the paper, authors discuss the needs for future environmental research on REEs, which would shed new light on the effects of REEs on agriculture, environment and human health.     

Assessing the efficacy of dredged materials from lake panasoffkee,florida: Implication to environment and agriculture part 1: Soil and environmental quality aspect

BACKGROUND, AIMS AND SCOPE: Dredged materials because of its variable but unique physical and chemical properties are often viewed by society and regulators as pollutants, but many have used these materials in coastal nourishment, land or wetland creation, construction materials, and for soil improvement as a soil amendment. Environmental impact assessment is an important pre-requisite to many dredging initiatives. The ability to reuse lake-dredge materials (LDM) for agricultural purposes is important because it reduces the need for off-shore disposal and provides an alternative to disposal of the materials in landfills. Additional research on disposal options of dredged materials are much needed to supply information on criteria testing and evaluation of the physical and chemical impacts of dredged materials at a disposal site, as well as information on many other aspects of dredging and dredged material disposal. While preliminary efforts are underway to provide information to establish criteria for land disposal, testing procedures for possible land disposal of contaminated sediments are still in their developing stage. The objective of this study (Part 1) was to quantify the effect of applied LDM from Lake Panasoffkee (LP), Florida on soil physico-chemical properties (soil quality) at the disposal site. This series of two papers aims at providing assessment of the efficacy of lake-dredged materials from LP especially its implication to environment (soil quality, Part 1) and agriculture (forage quality and pasture establishment, Part 2). METHODS: The experimental treatments that were evaluated consisted of different ratios of natural soil (NS) to LDM: LDM0 (100% NS:0% LDM); LDM25 (75% NS:25% LDM); LDM50 (50% NS:50% LDM); LDM75 (25% NS:75% LDM); and LDM100 (0% NS:100% LDM). Field layout was based on the principle of a completely randomized block design with four replications. The Mehlich 1 method (0.05 N HCl in 0.025 N H2SO4) was used for chemical extraction of soil. Soil P and other exchangeable cations (Ca, Mg, K, Al, and Fe) were analyzed using an Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) Spectroscopy. The effects of dredged materials addition on soil quality and compaction were analyzed statistically following the PROC ANOVA procedures. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: Sediments that were dredged from LP have high CaCO3 content (82%) and when these materials were incorporated into existing topsoil they would have the same favorable effects as liming the field. Thus, sediments with high CaCO3 may improve the physical and chemical conditions of subtropical sandy pastures. The heavy and trace metal contents of LDM were below the probable effect levels (PEL) and threshold effect levels (TEL). Average values for Pb, Zn, As, Cu, Hg, Se, Cd, and Ni of 5.2 +/- 1.3, 7.0 +/- 0.6, 4.4 +/- 0.1, 8.7 +/- 1.2, 0.01 +/- 0.02, 0.02 +/- 0.02, 2.5 +/- 0.1, and 14.6 +/- 6.4 mg kg(-1), respectively, were below the TEL and the PEL. TEL represents the concentrations of sediment-associated contaminants that are considered to cause significant hazards to aquatic organisms, while, PEL represents the lower limit of the range of the contaminant concentrations that are usually or always associated with adverse biological effects. As such, the agricultural or livestock industry could utilize these LDM to produce forages. LDM should be regarded as a beneficial resource, as a part of the ecological system. Addition of LDM had significant (p < or = 0.001) effects on soil physico-chemical properties and soil quality. Compared with the control plots, the soils in plots amended with LDM exhibited: (1) lower degree of soil compaction; (2) an increase in soil pH, Ca, and Mg; (3) decrease in the levels of soil Mn, Cu, Fe, Zn, and Si; and (4) no significant change in the level of Na in the soil. Results have shown the favorable influence that LDM had on soil compaction. The treatment x year interaction effect was not significant, but the average soil compaction varied widely (p < or = 0.001) with LDM application. In 2002 and 2003, soil compaction of plots was lowered significantly as a result of LDM additions. The least compacted soils in 2002 and 2003 were observed from plots with LDM75 with mean soil compaction of 300 x 10(3) and 350 x 10(3) Pa, respectively. CONCLUSION: Beneficial uses of dredged materials from LP, Florida are both economical and environmental. Often these materials can be obtained at little or no cost to the farmers or landowners in south Florida. Environmentally, dredging of sediments that are rich in CaCO3 should restore the 19.4-sq km LP by removing natural sediments from the lake bottom to improve the fishery, water quality, and navigation of the lake. The bottom sediment materials from lakes, river, and navigational channels usually are composed of upland soil enriched with nutrients and organic matter. These materials should be regarded as a beneficial resource to be used productively and not to be discarded as spoil materials. RECOMMENDATION AND OUTLOOK: Land application of LDM from LP may not only provide substantial benefits that will enhance the environment, community, and society in south Florida, but also in other parts of the world especially those areas having tropical and subtropical climate with forage-based beef cattle pastures. The heavy and trace metal contents of LDM from LP were below the PEL and TEL. As such, the agricultural or livestock industry could utilize these LDM to produce forages (Part 2 of this study). LDM should be regarded as a beneficial resource, as a part of the ecological system. Further studies are still needed to determine whether the environmental and ecological implications of LDM application are satisfied over the longer term.     

Scenarios of animal waste production and fertilizer use and associated ammonia emission for the developing countries

Livestock production and the use of synthetic fertilizer are responsible for about half of the global emission of NH₃. Depending on the animal category between 10 and 36% of the N in animal excreta is lost as NH₃. The current annual NH₃ emission in developing countries of 15 million ton N accounts for of the global emission from animal excreta. In addition, 7.2 million tons NH₃N of synthetic N fertilizers are lost as NH₃ in developing countries. This is 80% of the global NH₃ emission from synthetic fertilizer's use. Along with human population increase and economic growth, livestock production in developing countries may even increase by a factor of 3 between now and 2025. The net result of rapid increase of livestock production combined with higher efficiency is an increase in NH₃ emissions of only 60% from 15 to 24 million tons NH₃N between 1990 and 2025 in developing countries. Livestock production is an important consumer of feedstuffs, mainly cereals, thereby inducing additional demand for synthetic fertilizers. Despite the projected major increase of synthetic fertilizer use from 42 to 106 million ton N between 1990 and 2025, the NH₃ loss in developing countries may decrease if a shift towards other fertilizer types, that are less vulnerable to NH₃ volatilization, is realized. According to the scenario, the total emission of NH₃ associated with food production in developing countries will increase from 22 to 30 million ton N yr⁻¹ between 1990 and 2025. Although the NH₃ emission increases more slowly than food production, in particular, animal production may show geographic concentration in certain regions, which may lead to high local emission densities and associated environmental problems.     

The rains are disappointing us: dynamic vulnerability and adaptation to multiple stressors in the Afram Plains, Ghana

This paper builds on work on the dynamics of vulnerability and multiple stressors through a case study in the Afram Plains of the Eastern region in Ghana. A vulnerability framework is applied in the community of Mimkyemfre to identify and explain the multiple underlying political, socioeconomic and environmental forces that influence the ways in which people are exposed and sensitive to climate, and their capacities to adapt to changing conditions. The results of the study indicate that the community experiences a range of biophysical and socioeconomic conditions that contribute to its vulnerability. Vulnerability was found to change over time and in some cases was cyclical, in that certain actions taken for the purposes of adaptation were found to exacerbate existing vulnerabilities. Processes of vulnerability were also found to occur at several scales and were experienced unevenly at the community level. The findings of this assessment have important implications for the design and implementation of successful adaptation initiatives, both in Africa and elsewhere. In particular, they demonstrate the need to understand the social, economic and institutional challenges to development as a basis for any contemplation of adaptation to climate change.     

Invisible territory: mapping land-use change and power in the Peruvian Amazon

ABSTRACT

This paper follows the evolution of the discourse of agricultural productivity, from its inception in colonial land-use mapping to current land-use changes, using a case study of the expansion of an oil palm company onto the territory of an indigenous community in the Peruvian Amazon that caused large-scale deforestation. Drawing on analytical tools of political ecology and insights from historical geographythis paper shows how current soil and land classification, forest usufruct rules, and forest designations under the 2011 Forest and Wildlife law stem from a colonial discourse of agricultural productivity. This discourse excludes other forms of land-use, such as indigenous forest management, and the identities and relationships bound up in those. This research contributes to an understanding of how the processes that seek to quantify and determine land-use change are historically embedded in western ideas of agricultural productivity.     

The Yellow River in transition

Like many parts of the world, the Yellow River basin has problems associated with water scarcity, pollution, and flood risk. Analyses that focus only on the physical characteristics of these problems miss some of their most important social drivers. In this paper we identify some interlocking changes that have occurred as a consequence of economic reforms begun in China in 1978, and the implications of these changes for the Yellow River. The reforms have caused changes in the organisation of household production, increasing urbanisation and urban affluence, rapid industrialisation, and large scale spatial shifts in agricultural production. Rather than specific decisions it is these gradual changes that have affected the current status of the Yellow River and its basin. Our analysis suggests that at least some solutions to water problems in the Yellow River lie outside the basin, and beyond the realm of science or technology.     

Methodological considerations for nitrogen policies in the Netherlands including a new role for research

The Netherlands has attempted to follow EU guidelines in developing national policies to reduce pollution of groundwater by nitrates originating from (over) fertilized agricultural land. The EU has not been satisfied with these policies and this is resulting in legal conflicts. National policies have focused on nitrogen budgeting and on fertilization rates, over-simplifying the crucial role of soils during the leaching of nitrates to groundwater. As an alternative, a dynamic approach using simulation modeling is introduced as is illustrated for a study area in the Netherlands. A number of considerations for future policy directions are suggested, including requirements for research: (i) promotion of research aimed at improving and maintaining nutrient use efficiency at farm level; (ii) promotion of joint learning experiences between farmers and researchers, where farmers’ organizations could act as “research consortia”; (iii) emphasis on site and time specific management (precision agriculture) in policy development, and provision of site-specific advice via modern information and communication technologies; (iv) clearer guidelines for groundwater monitoring procedures, including additional monitoring at greater depths and consideration of groundwater quality from an appropriate regional perspective; (v) groundwater monitoring should take place at locations selected according to specific hydro-geological characteristics, rather than being executed at random and (vi) clear goals that are defined within existing and future policies at EU and international level, should allow for regional differentiation in indicators; these being the outcome of negotiations between farmers or their representatives, policy makers and researchers.     

Time-dependent recordkeeping fatigue among youth completing health diaries of unintentional injuries

PROBLEM: Increasingly, investigators are asking youth to self-report daily activity patterns and health outcomes in diary studies. This study assesses recordkeeping fatigue with respect to data quality and event reporting among youth participating in a health diary study. METHOD: Unintentional injury data were collected during a 13-week longitudinal diary study of Ohio youth exposed to agricultural hazards. Two analyses were conducted using data from 2000. Analysis 1 examined trends in discernable recordkeeping errors (DREs) over the course of follow-up. Analysis 2 assessed trends in injury reporting over follow-up. RESULTS: The percentage of items containing a DRE showed a slight, non-significant decline throughout follow-up. Injury reporting declined significantly (p<0.001) over follow-up. SUMMARY: There was no compelling evidence of respondent fatigue with respect to DREs. The observed decline in injury reporting is problematic because estimates of youth injury incidence in health diary studies may vary depending upon the length of the follow-up period.