COMPONENT TESTING WITHIN A COMPREHENSIVE WATERSHED MODEL1

ABSTRACT A comprehensive mathematical watershed model containing a complete soil moisture accounting system was used to simulate the hydrologic processes measured in one of the weighing lysimeters at Coshocton, Ohio. Data from a four-year rotation were used to calibrate the parameters initially selected for the model. Data from the succeeding four years were used to evaluate the predictions. Reasonable agreement was obtained between observed and predicted percolation and evapo-transpiration values.     

MODIS MOD16蒸散发产品在中国流域的质量评估

利用地面观测降水数据、流量数据,以及重力卫星(GRACE)观测的与全球陆面数据同化系统(GLDAS)模拟的流域蓄水量变化数据,基于流域水量平衡原理,从年与月两个时间尺度分析了MODIS全球蒸散发产品(MOD16)在中国不同流域的一致性及其时空特征。结果表明:1)年尺度上,MOD16/ET在中国流域(除松花江流域)与基于水量平衡估算的流域实际ET(WBET)相比呈现高估,且在不同集水区高估程度不同,与流域实际ET的差异从北方的松花江流域、黄河流域到南方的长江流域有从小到大的特点;2)月尺度上,MOD16/ET与WBET相比,存在低值区(20 mm/月)高估、高值区(20 mm/月)低估的特点;在蒸散发过程较弱的11月到次年3月,MOD16/ET产品在中国流域存在普遍性高估;而在其他月份,MOD16/ET与WBET的一致性因流域而异;3)MOD16/ET与WBET的一致性在中国不同流域存在地域性差异,总体上在外流区的一致性优于内流区,在北方松花江流域的一致性优于南方的长江流域。     

基于临近台站气象数据的参考作物蒸散量估算方法

参考作物蒸散量（ET₀）是评估区域植被耗水进而指导水资源优化管理所需的主要参数之一,但我国大部分地区标准化气象台站稀疏、部分研究点的气象资料通常难以获取,给ET₀的计算带来了很大困难。以地处内陆旱区的内蒙古河套灌区为例,利用该区4个标准气象站1981-2006年的气象资料,讨论了研究点在没有历史气象数据且现有气象数据不完备的情况下,采用临近台站气象数据估算ET₀的可靠性。估算方法分别为估算未知气象数据的FAO56 Penman-Monteith方程（PM56）、基于临近台站气象数据校正的经验公式以及利用临近台站气象数据训练的人工神经网络模型。结果表明：（1）在完全没有气象数据的条件下,可采用临近站点的气象数据估算研究点的ET₀,平均绝对误差（MAE）为0.43~0.52 mm d^-1,均方根误差（RMSE）为0.56~0.63 mm d^-1;估算精度与台站间的距离有关,利用维度信息校正太阳辐射值可提高估算精度。（2）仅有最高和最低气温数据时,估算气象数据的PM56方程计算误差较大,且站点之间表现不稳定,人工神经网络模型的估算精度最高,MAE和RMSE分别为0.14~0.22 mm d^-1和0.17~0.29 mm d^-1;校正后的Hargreaves公式的估算效果次之,MAE和RMSE分别为0.23~0.26 mm d^-1和0.30~0.31 mm d^-1。（3）在已知温度和辐射数据时,利用临近台站气象数据训练的人工神经网络模型依然表现最好,MAE和RMSE分别为0.13~0.19 mm d^-1和0.17~0.25 mm d^-1,其他两种方法误差较大。在内陆干旱条件下,利用研究点的气温数据结合临近台站的历史气象信息可有效估算参考作物蒸散发。     

Tamarix and Diorhabda Leaf Beetle Interactions: Implications for Tamarix Water Use and Riparian Habitat

Tamarix leaf beetles (Diorhabda carinulata) have been widely released on western United States rivers to control introduced shrubs in the genus Tamarix, with the goals of saving water through removal of an assumed high water‐use plant, and of improving habitat value by removing a competitor of native riparian trees. We review recent studies addressing three questions: (1) to what extent are Tamarix weakened or killed by recurrent cycles of defoliation; (2) can significant water salvage be expected from defoliation; and (3) what are the effects of defoliation on riparian ecology, particularly on avian habit? Defoliation has been patchy at many sites, and shrubs at some sites recover each year even after multiple years of defoliation. Tamarix evapotranspiration (ET) is much lower than originally assumed in estimates of potential water savings, and are the same or lower than possible replacement plants. There is concern that the endangered southwestern willow flycatcher (Empidonax trailli extimus) will be negatively affected by defoliation because the birds build nests early in the season when Tamarix is still green, but are still on their nests during the period of summer defoliation. Affected river systems will require continued monitoring and development of adaptive management practices to maintain or enhance riparian habitat values. Multiplatform remote sensing methods are playing an essential role in monitoring defoliation and rates of ET on affected river systems.     

Assessing Calibration Uncertainty and Automation for Estimating Evapotranspiration from Agricultural Areas Using METRIC

Agricultural irrigation accounts for a large fraction of the total water use in the western United States. The Mapping Evapotranspiration at high Resolution with Internalized Calibration (METRIC) remote sensing energy balance model is being used to estimate historical agricultural water use in western Nevada to evaluate basin‐wide water budgets. Each METRIC evapotranspiration (ET) estimate must be calibrated by a trained user, which requires some iterative time investment and results in variation in ET estimates between users. An automated calibration algorithm for the METRIC model was designed to generate ET estimates comparable to those from trained users by mimicking the manual calibration process. Automated calibration allows for rapid generation of METRIC ET estimates with minimal manual intervention, as well as uncertainty and sensitivity analysis of the model. The variation in ET estimates generated by the automated calibration algorithm was found to be similar to the variation in manual ET estimates. Results indicate that uncertainty was highest for fields with low ET levels and lowest for fields with high ET levels, with a seasonal mean uncertainty of approximately 5% for all fields. In addition, in a blind comparison, automated daily and seasonal ET estimates compared well with flux tower measurement ET data at multiple sites. Automated methods can generate first‐order ET estimates that are similar to time intensive manual efforts with less time investment.     

Operational Evapotranspiration Mapping Using Remote Sensing and Weather Datasets: A New Parameterization for the SSEB Approach

The increasing availability of multi‐scale remotely sensed data and global weather datasets is allowing the estimation of evapotranspiration (ET) at multiple scales. We present a simple but robust method that uses remotely sensed thermal data and model‐assimilated weather fields to produce ET for the contiguous United States (CONUS) at monthly and seasonal time scales. The method is based on the Simplified Surface Energy Balance (SSEB) model, which is now parameterized for operational applications, renamed as SSEBop. The innovative aspect of the SSEBop is that it uses predefined boundary conditions that are unique to each pixel for the “hot” and “cold” reference conditions. The SSEBop model was used for computing ET for 12 years (2000‐2011) using the MODIS and Global Data Assimilation System (GDAS) data streams. SSEBop ET results compared reasonably well with monthly eddy covariance ET data explaining 64% of the observed variability across diverse ecosystems in the CONUS during 2005. Twelve annual ET anomalies (2000‐2011) depicted the spatial extent and severity of the commonly known drought years in the CONUS. More research is required to improve the representation of the predefined boundary conditions in complex terrain at small spatial scales. SSEBop model was found to be a promising approach to conduct water use studies in the CONUS, with a similar opportunity in other parts of the world. The approach can also be applied with other thermal sensors such as Landsat.     

Managing Forests for Increased Regional Water Yield in the Southeastern U.S. Coastal Plain

With growing populations fueling increased groundwater abstraction and forecasts of greater water scarcity in the southeastern United States, identifying land management strategies that enhance water availability will be vital to maintaining hydrologic resources and protecting natural systems. Management of forested uplands for lower basal area, currently a priority for habitat improvement on public lands, may also increase water yield through decreased evapotranspiration (ET). To explore this hypothesis, we synthesized studies of precipitation and ET in coastal plain pine stands to develop a statistical model of water yield as a function of management strategy, stand structure, and ecosystem water use. This model allowed us to estimate changes in water yield in response to varying management strategies across spatial scales from the individual stand to a regional watershed. Results suggest that slash pine stands managed at lower basal areas can have up to 64% more cumulative water yield over a 25‐year rotation compared to systems managed for high‐density timber production, with the greatest increases in stands also managed for recurrent understory fire. Although there are important uncertainties in the magnitude of additional water yield and its final destination (i.e., surface water bodies vs. groundwater), this analysis highlights the potential for management activities on public and private timber lands to partially offset increasing demand on surface and groundwater resources.     

垃圾填埋场生态覆盖系统研究

为了探索生态覆盖系统的合理设计,利用非压实覆盖土层储蓄降水、依靠植物的蒸腾和土壤蒸发消耗土壤水从而控制渗沥污染,在武汉大学灌溉排水与水环境综合试验场开展了不同组合覆盖形式的渗沥控制试验,并对生态覆盖系统进行非饱和水运动数值模拟和水量平衡分析,结果表明,适合于生态覆盖的土壤类型为壤土和粘壤土,覆盖土层填筑密度宜在1.1-...     

贵州省参考作物蒸散发量的时空变化分析

利用1960～2009年贵州省18个气象站的逐日气象资料,应用FAO Penman-Monteith方程,计算了参考作物蒸散发量(ET0),分析了贵州省参考作物蒸散发量时空变化特征以及主要影响因素。结果表明:贵州省各个地区年均ET0在634～936mm之间;从1960年到2009年,年参考作物蒸散发量总体呈下降趋势,年际变化率为-1.70mm/a;从20世纪60年代起,各年代ET0呈减小趋势;春季、夏季和冬季的ET0下降趋势显著,秋季的下降趋势不明显;对全年和各个季节的ET0影响最大的气候因素都是日照时数。贵州省显著减小的日照时数可能是ET0呈减小趋势的原因。     

Spatiotemporal Evaluation of Simulated Evapotranspiration and Streamflow over Texas Using the WRF‐Hydro‐RAPID Modeling Framework

This study assesses a large‐scale hydrologic modeling framework (WRF‐Hydro‐RAPID) in terms of its high‐resolution simulation of evapotranspiration (ET) and streamflow over Texas (drainage area: 464,135 km²). The reference observations used include eight‐day ET data from MODIS and FLUXNET, and daily river discharge data from 271 U.S. Geological Survey gauges located across a climate gradient. A recursive digital filter is applied to decompose the river discharge into surface runoff and base flow for comparison with the model counterparts. While the routing component of the model is pre‐calibrated, the land component is uncalibrated. Results show the model performance for ET and runoff is aridity‐dependent. ET is better predicted in a wet year than in a dry year. Streamflow is better predicted in wet regions with the highest efficiency ~0.7. In comparison, streamflow is most poorly predicted in dry regions with a large positive bias. Modeled ET bias is more strongly correlated with the base flow bias than surface runoff bias. These results complement previous evaluations by incorporating more spatial details. They also help identify potential processes for future model improvements. Indeed, improving the dry region streamflow simulation would require synergistic enhancements of ET, soil moisture and groundwater parameterizations in the current model configuration. Our assessments are important preliminary steps towards accurate large‐scale hydrologic forecasts.