Climate and land-use changes affecting river sediment and brown trout in alpine countries—a review

Background, aim, and scope

Catch decline of freshwater fish has been recorded in several countries. Among the possible causes, habitat change is discussed. This article focuses on potentially increased levels of fine sediments going to rivers and their effects on gravel-spawning brown trout. Indications of increased erosion rates are evident from land-use change in agriculture, changes in forest management practices, and from climate change. The latter induces an increase in air and river water temperatures, reduction in permafrost, changes in snow dynamics and an increase in heavy rain events. As a result, an increase in river sediment is likely. Suspended sediment may affect fish health and behaviour directly. Furthermore, sediment loads may clog gravel beds impeding fish such as brown trout from spawning and reducing recruitment rates. To assess the potential impact on fine sediments, knowledge of brown trout reproductive needs and the effects of sediment on brown trout health were evaluated.

Approach

We critically reviewed the literature and included results from ongoing studies to answer the following questions, focusing on recent decades and rivers in alpine countries.

Have climate change and land-use change increased erosion and sediment loads in rivers?

Do we have indications of an increase in riverbed clogging?

Are there indications of direct or indirect effects on brown trout from increased suspended sediment concentrations in rivers or from an increase in riverbed clogging?

Results

Rising air temperatures have led to more intensive precipitation in winter months, earlier snow melt in spring, and rising snow lines and hence to increased erosion. Intensification of land use has supported erosion in lowland and pre-alpine areas in the second half of the twentieth century. In the Alps, however, reforestation of abandoned land at high altitudes might reduce the erosion risk while intensification on the lower, more easily accessible slopes increases erosion risk. Data from laboratory experiments show that suspended sediments affect the health and behaviour of fish when available in high amounts. Point measurements in large rivers indicate no common lethal threat and suspended sediment is rarely measured continuously in small rivers. However, effects on fish can be expected under environmentally relevant conditions. River bed clogging impairs the reproductive performance of gravel-spawning fish.

Discussion

Overall, higher erosion and increased levels of fine sediment going into rivers are expected in future. Additionally, sediment loads in rivers are suspected to have considerably impaired gravel bed structure and brown trout spawning is impeded. Timing of discharge is put forward and is now more likely to affect brown trout spawning than in previous decades.

Conclusions

Reports on riverbed clogging from changes in erosion and fine sediment deposition patterns, caused by climate change and land-use change are rare. This review identifies both a risk of increases in climate erosive forces and fine sediment loads in rivers of alpine countries. Increased river discharge and sediment loads in winter and early spring could be especially harmful for brown trout reproduction and development of young life stages. Recently published studies indicate a decline in trout reproduction from riverbed clogging in many rivers in lowlands and alpine regions. However, the multitude of factors in natural complex ecosystems makes it difficult to address a single causative factor.

Recommendations and perspectives

Further investigations into the consequences of climate change and land-use change on river systems are needed. Small rivers, of high importance for the recruitment of gravel-spawning fish, are often neglected. Studies on river bed clogging are rare and the few existing studies are not comparable. Thus, there is a strong need for the development of methods to assess sediment input and river bed clogging. As well, studies on the effects to fish from suspended sediments and consequences of gravel beds clogging under natural conditions are urgently needed.     

底质营养盐对菹草生长及养分分配的影响

在野外池塘中,利用3种不同营养状况的底质研究底质营养盐对菹草生长及养分分配的影响,结果表明：沉水植物菹草面对底质营养盐的胁迫出现了急性的生理生化反应,在生长初期叶片总的可溶性糖含量在肥沃的底质上高于贫营养底质上;根、茎、叶和石芽各构件都具有异速生长现象,并且表现规律不一样;菹草的根冠比随底质营养盐的不同而变化;随着营养条件对菹草生长胁迫加重,根、冠的异速生长愈明显,同时石芽的N∶P和C∶N比率显著受底质营养盐的影响,而菹草叶片和茎N∶P和C∶N比率不受底质肥力的影响,这些响应将改变石芽第2年的命运和影响种群的维持;在胁迫生境下,菹草首先分配资源到无性繁殖体--石芽上以便维持种群的延续,以回避策略应对底质营养盐胁迫。     

长江上游河流输沙量时间序列跃变现象研究

长江上游来水来沙条件是三峡工程泥沙问题研究的重要基础。长江上游流域面积约100万km2,产输沙条件复杂。根据有序聚类分析法、里和海哈林法和费希尔最优分割法,对长江上游干流和主要支流控制站输沙量时间序列的跃变现象进行了研究。在显著水平005下,长江上游在径流量变化不大的情况下,河流输沙量在1991年后出现了明显减小的质变过程,干流寸滩站 1991～2005年年均输沙量为313亿t,较 1953～1990年均值减小了32%,特别是2001年后输沙量减小更为显著,2002～2005年仅为211亿t。水库拦沙、水土保持工程减沙等人类活动是导致长江上游输沙量时间序列出现跃变现象的主要原因,1991～2005年与1990年前相比,人类活动新增减沙量为1187亿t/a,占三峡入库总减沙量的75%,且随着三峡上游一系列大型水利枢纽的建成和生态环境的持续改善,三峡水库在相当长时间内会保持较少的来沙量。研究成果可为三峡工程入库泥沙代表系列的选取提供依据。     

不同水温时底泥扰动对不同形态磷分布的影响

研究了江南地区典型水温条件下,底泥扰动对上覆水中不同形态磷迁移的影响.结果表明,不同水温条件下,底泥扰动均有利于上覆水中溶解态磷(即溶解性总磷酸盐(DTP),包括溶解性正磷酸盐(DIP)和溶解性有机磷(DOP))向底泥迁移.与对照试验相比,不同水温时的扰动均导致DIP/TP和DTP/TP明显降低.与初始状态(第0天时)相比,扰动导致DIP/TP分别降低了39.61百分点(冬季水温)和17.38百分点(夏季水温),而DTP/TP则分别降低了39.16百分点(冬季水温)和19.06百分点(夏季水温).相反,对照试验中,DTP/TP分别上升了24.90百分点(冬季水温)和23.37百分点(夏季水温).这说明底泥扰动促进了溶解态磷向颗粒态磷(PP)的转化.     

Potential utilization of riverbed sediments by hydrothermal solidification and its hardening mechanism

Hydrothermal solidification of riverbed sediments (silt) has been carried out in a Teflon (PTFE) lined stainless steel hydrothermal apparatus, under saturated steam pressure at 343–473 K for 2–24 h by calcium hydrate introduction. Tobermorite was shown to be the most important strength-producing constituent of the solidified silt. A longer curing time or a higher curing temperature was shown to be favorable to the tobermorite formation, thus promoting strength development; however, overlong curing time (24 h) seemed to affect the strength development negatively. The hardening mechanism consisted of the crystal growth/morphology evolution during the hydrothermal process. The species dissolved from the silt were precipitated first as fine particles, and then some of the particles seemed to build up the rudimental morphology of calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) gel. The CSH gel, with precipitated particles, appeared to cause some reorganization within the matrix, which made the matrix denser and thus gave an initial strength development. Tobermorite, transformed inevitably from the CSH gel, reinforced the matrix with its interlocked structure, and thus further promoted the strength development.     

Spatial Extent of Sediment Toxicity in U.S. Estuaries and Marine Bays

Acute, laboratory toxicity tests were performed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) on 1543 surficial sediment samples collected during 1991 through 1997 throughout 25 estuaries and marine bays. Selected areas were sampled along the Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, and Pacific coasts. The toxicity of each sample was determined with 10-day amphipod survival tests performed with solid-phase (bulk) sediments. Collectively, the 1543 samples tested through 1997 represented a total area of approximately 7300 km². Toxicity was observed with the amphipod survival tests in samples that represented approximately 6% of the combined area. Using similar tests conducted on samples collected in different, but overlapping, study areas, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimated that approximately 7% of the combined estuarine area sampled was toxic. Generally, toxicity was most severe in northeastern and southwestern estuaries and least prevalent in southeastern and northwestern areas. However, considerable portions of the Pacific coast have not been tested with the same methods. In tests of CYP1A enzyme induction (n=464), samples were toxic that represented about 5% of the combined study areas. Toxicity was much more widespread, however, when the results of two sub-lethal tests were analyzed. Significant results occurred in samples that represented approximately 25% and 39% of the study areas in tests of sea urchin fertilization (n=1309) and microbial bioluminescence (n=1215), respectively.     

长江河口上边界床沙粒径的长期变化及其原因

大通水文站和泥沙观测断面位于长江河口的上边界。长江下游从大通（潮区界）至长江口门的距离长达680 km。20世纪80年代以来,长江流域日趋强烈的人类活动,显著改变了长江入海水文和泥沙数量和特性,从而对长江下游至河口动力地貌和动力沉积产生了显著影响。主要研究长江潮区界大通断面20世纪50年代以来床沙粒径的长期变化。1977~2004年床沙粒径 (〖WTBX〗d〖WTBZ〗50) 有一稳定增大的趋势,这主要是对上游河道悬沙来量持续减少的响应。值得注意的是床沙粗化过程是发生在该河床长期加积的背景上的。研究表明：导致床沙粒径粗化的原因,主要是上游河段进入本河段床沙粒径的增加和本河段冲淤过程中悬沙与床沙颗粒的交换。随着三峡水库的正常运行和其它大型水库的建设,预计未来几十年长江上游悬沙来量将进一步大幅度下降,可以预计,长江潮区界河段的床沙粒径将继续呈现增大的趋势。〖     

近四十年来长江源区河流水沙量的变化

长江源区是指直门达水文站以上长江干支流的广大集水区域，是长江的重要水源涵养区。通过统计分析直门达站1957－1999年的43a间年径流量和年输沙量的变化情况，得出几个基本结论：长江源区年径流的变化主要受气候等自然因素的影响，年径流周期性变化较为明显，径流丰水年，偏丰水年出现最多的年份是20世纪60年代和80年代，枯水年和偏枯年出现最多的年份是70和90年代，总体上看40年间节径流基本稳定，但90年代比80年代有趋向偏枯的现象；年输沙量与年径流量的变化基本同步，年输沙量的变化主要取决于年径流量的变化，年输沙量也呈弱周期性变化状态，并有趋向减少的势头，近10a直门达站年径流量呈递减的趋势导致了年输沙量呈相应的变化；长江源区径流量和输沙量年内主要集中在5－10月，分别占年径流量和年输沙量的87．3％和99％；沱沱河由于径流以冰川补给为主，径流量与输沙量的变化呈现出不同的特征。     

香溪河流域不同介质中碳、氮、磷的分布特征及相关性研究

为了解香溪河流域碳、氮、磷的分布情况及水、陆生态系统中这些生源要素间的相互关系,对流域内河岸带土壤、河流水体及沉积物中总有机碳(TOC)、总氮(TN)、总磷(TP)含量进行调查,分析它们在流域内的分布特点,探讨各要素在3种介质间的相关性及随河流级别的变化规律。研究发现,超过60%的样点土壤中TOC、TN含量处于"较丰富"或"丰富"等级,耕地附近样点的TOC、TN和磷矿区附近样点的TP普遍偏高。河流水体及沉积物中各要素的含量都与土壤中的含量紧密相关,但水、陆介质间TP的相关性较TOC、TN强。低级别河流样点土壤中TOC、TN、C/P、N/P值和沉积物中C/P及N/P值整体较高级别河流样点高。结果表明:以磷矿开发和农业施肥为代表的人类活动,对香溪河流域内生源要素的含量及分布产生了显著影响;水体中P元素含量与陆源关系最强,在水体污染控制中应予以重视。     

河流底泥冲刷悬浮对水质影响途径的实验研究

进入天然水体的大部分污染物会在河流，湖泊底部形成富含各种污染物的沉积物层，在一定的水流流速及紊动作用下发生底泥冲刷及再悬浮。大量的污染物被重新释放出来造成河湖水体的二次污染，这种情况是外源污染得到治理后影响水质的主要因素。建立这种影响条件下的水质模型需要对沉积物的污染释放机理有充分的认识。采用富含污染物的天然河湖底泥，通过衡温静态培养等手段，在不同的水力条件。瞬彰服，连续悬浮和静止状态下，研究了污染物的释放，并对实验结果进行了分析。确定了底泥冲刷悬浮影响水质的主要途径，即在底泥间隙水污染物浓度接近平衡时，其与上层大水体的混合作用是影响水质的主要作用，其次是下部底泥的静态释放，而悬浮颗粒的污染物扩散释放作用则较小，这为底泥冲刷悬浮影响下的水质模型的建立提供了理论依据。