Conservation Science and Forest Service Policy for Roadless Areas

Abstract:  Questions persist regarding whether the science of conservation biology can successfully affect environmental decision making. One of the most prominent fields of intersection between conservation science and environmental policy is public-lands debates in the United States. I reviewed the role of conservation science in the roadless-area policies of the U.S. Forest Service. Since 1971, the Forest Service has systematically evaluated roadless areas on national forests three times, most recently during the Clinton administration's Roadless Area Conservation Review (1998–2000) ( U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service 2000b ). Drawing on the agency's environmental impact statements and supporting documents and the internal records of conservation organizations, I examined the changing goals, methodology, and outcome of roadless-area advocacy and policy. Since the 1970s, conservation science has successfully informed public and administrative concern for roadless-area protection. Conservation science has transformed public discourse regarding roadless areas and has changed the scope and rationale of national conservation organizations' goals for roadless-area policy from protecting some to protecting all remaining national forest roadless areas. The Forest Service has increasingly drawn on the lessons of conservation biology to justify its methodology and its administrative recommendations to protect roadless areas. The 2000 Roadless Area Conservation Review resulted in a recommendation to protect all remaining national forest roadless areas, up from 22% of roadless areas in the first roadless review. Despite the scientific merits of recent roadless-area advocacy and policy, however, such initiatives have faced political difficulties. The emphasis on large-scale, top-down, national approaches to conservation policy has rendered such policies politically problematic.     

The Aquatic Conservation Strategy of the Northwest Forest Plan

Abstract:  Implemented in 1994, the Aquatic Conservation Strategy of the Northwest Forest Plan was designed to restore and maintain ecological processes for aquatic and riparian area conservation on federal lands in the western portion of the Pacific Northwest. We used decision support models to quantitatively evaluate changes in the condition of selected watersheds. In the approximately 10 years since strategy implementation, watershed condition scores changed modestly, but conditions improved in 64% of 250 sampled watersheds, declined in 28%, and remained relatively the same in 7%. Watersheds that had the largest declines included some where wildfires burned 30–60% of their area. The overall statistical distribution of the condition scores did not change significantly, however. Much of the increase in watershed condition was related to improved riparian conditions. The number of large trees (>51 cm diameter at breast height) increased 2–4%, and there were substantial reductions in tree harvest and other disturbances along streams. Whether such changes will translate into longer-term improvements in aquatic ecosystems across broader landscapes remains to be seen.     

Motivations Influencing the Adoption of Conservation Easements

Abstract: The use of conservation easements as a conservation mechanism for private land has increased greatly in the past decade; conservation easements now protect over 15 million ha across the United States from residential and commercial development. We used a mailed survey and in‐depth telephone interviews to determine factors that motivate private landowners in Iowa, Illinois, Michigan, Ohio, and Wisconsin (U.S.A.) to place conservation easements on their properties. The mailed survey asked about characteristics of landowners, their properties, and their opinions on 9 factors related to the decision to place an easement. A follow‐up telephone interview was completed with 19 mail‐survey participants to gain an in‐depth understanding of the action and to triangulate the results with the questionnaire. Place attachment, which is a measure of personal connection to a location or property, was the greatest motivation for implementation of an easement. Results of a principal components analysis suggested contributing to the public good underlaid several of the strong motivational factors for participation. Financial reasons were the lowest ranked motivational factor; however, financial concerns may facilitate placement of an easement that would otherwise not be realized. We believe that our results may be transferable to places where land protected by easements is not dominated by traditional farming (row crops, pastures, and hay), timber harvesting, or nonextractive uses (e.g., habitat for wild animals, recreation, and protection of ecosystem services).     

Climate change and indigenous natural resource management: a review of socio-ecological interactions in the Alinytjara Wilurara NRM region

This article examines key socio-ecological interactions identified during a climate change vulnerability assessment in the Alinytjara Wilurara natural resources management (NRM) region of South Australia. The complex local socio-ecological interactions are highlighted to guide a response to the challenge of adapting to climate change within the region. Recognising several key desert drivers which perpetuate degraded socio-ecological systems, this article recommends that a range of strategies be employed simultaneously to enhance local environmental management in association with remote indigenous communities, including: linking people and NRM more closely; tracking funding but ensuring systems can withstand periods of limited financial support; developing cross-sectoral and cross-institutional links; empowering and engaging communities; communicating effectively; and actively supporting local and traditional environmental knowledge. Unless climate change adaptation responses within the region are conceptualised and enacted within the context of complex local socio-ecological systems, NRM will not improve and social vulnerability will increase.     

Nitrogen Sources and Sinks Within the Middle Rio Grande,New Mexico1

Abstract: Relationships between discharge, land use, and nitrogen sources and sinks were developed using 5 years of synoptic sampling along a 300 km reach of the Rio Grande in central New Mexico. Average river discharge was higher during 2001 and 2005 “wet years” (15 m³/s) than during the drought years of 2002‐04 “dry years” (8.9 m³/s), but there were no differences in nitrogen loading from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) which were the largest and most consistent source of nitrogen to the river (1,330 kg/day). Average total dissolved nitrogen (TDN) concentrations remained elevated for 180 km downstream of the Albuquerque WWTP averaging 1.2 mg/l in wet years and 0.52 mg/l in dry years. Possible explanations for the constant elevated TDN concentrations downstream of the major point source include reduced nitrogen retention capacity, minimal contact with riparian or channel vegetation, large suspended sediment loads, and low algal biomass. Somewhat surprisingly, agricultural return flows had lower average nitrogen concentrations than river water originally diverted to agriculture in both wet (0.81 mg/l) and dry years (0.19 mg/l), indicating that the agricultural system is a sink for nitrogen. Lower average nitrogen concentrations in the river during the dry years can be explained by the input of agricultural returns which comprise the majority of river flow in dry years.     

Livestock grazing and habitat for a threatened species: Land-use decisions under scientific uncertainty in the White Mountains,California, USA

The North Fork of Cottonwood Creek, in the White Mountains, Inyo National Forest, California, is a critically important refuge for the Paiute cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki seleniris), a federally listed threatened species. Habitat for these fish appears to be limited by excessive levels of fine sediment in the channel, and livestock grazing of riparian meadows has been implicated in delivery of sediment to the channel. However, the relationships between land use and sediment yield have not been conclusively determined, in large part because there are no historically ungrazed sites to serve as long-term controls. Accordingly, land-use decisions must be made under scientific uncertainty. To reduce erosion and sedimentation in the stream, the Forest Service spent approximately US$260,000 from 1981 to 1991 to repair watershed damage from livestock grazing, prevent livestock from traversing steep banks, and limit livestock access to the channel. Throughout this period, livestock grazing has continued on these lands, yielding less than $12,000 in grazing fees. In revising its Allotment Management Plan for the basin, the Forest Service rejected the “no-grazing” alternative because it was inconsistent with its Land and Resource Management Plan, which specifies there is to be no net reduction of grazing. Joint appointment with the University of California White Mountain Research Station, East Line Street, Bishop, California 93518, USA.     

An Integrated Approach for Impact Assessment of Water Harvesting Techniques in Dry Areas: The Case of Oued Oum Zessar Watershed (Tunisia)

In the arid regions of Tunisia, considerable investments are being made to maintain the old water harvesting techniques and introduce new ones to capture the scarce amount of rainwater (100 mm to 230 mm annually) for agricultural and domestic purposes. However, no detailed assessment of the multiple effects and the costs and benefits of these techniques have been made so far. This paper summarizes the results of an in depth investigation of the multiple impacts (runoff mobilization, ground water recharge, agro-socio-economic impacts) of the water harvesting works undertaken in the watershed of oued Oum Zessar (southeastern Tunisia). The importance of interdisciplinary and integrated approaches was revealed through this detailed impact assessment and economic evaluation. In fact, the profitability of the water harvesting works depends largely on the criteria chosen. However, further refinements are needed to better include all possible impacts (positive and negative) that occur as a result of the installation of the water harvesting structures.     

珠江三角洲的耕地及其持续利用

耕地的持续利用是农业持续发展的前提和基础,是人类经济社会持续发展的根本保证。本文论述了珠江三角洲耕地的现状和经济快速增长所引发的耕地问题,并指出耕地的持续利用需要全社会的共同努力。     

丽江地区中低产耕地及其开发利用

本义探讨了丽江地区中低产耕地的特征,并从自然因素和人文因素分析了低产的原因,进而提出合理改良利用低产耕地的对策。     

城市绿地对周边热环境影响遥感研究--以北京为例

城市绿地是缓解城市热环境效应问题的主要因素之一,它不仅在宏观上影响城市区域尺度气候条件,而且在小区尺度直接影响到周边的热环境条件。本文从绿地景观格局的角度出发,利用遥感技术和地理信息技术,以北京市主城区的城市绿地作为研究对象,以绿地周边建筑物作为热环境影响承载体中介,分析了影响建筑热环境的绿地的主要景观因子,开展了城市绿地对周边热环境的影响范围、降温幅度以及绿地景观参数与降温幅度的相关关系研究。首先,从TM遥感影像上人工数字化选取了26个城市绿地斑块,同时提取了其周边建筑物像元;然后,基于定量遥感理论反演了绿地和建筑物的温度,并利用GIS工具统计了绿地和建筑的景观格局信息;最后,基于空间统计分析方法和等温线周长-温度曲线变点方法确定了城市绿地对周围建筑物热环境的影响范围,通过相关性分析探讨了城市绿地景观参数与其降温幅度之间的相关性。研究结果显示：（1）在100 m空间分辨率的尺度下,北京大部分城市绿地斑块对周边100 m范围内的建筑具有降温效应;面积在0.5 km2以上的绿地斑块,对周边100 m范围内建筑物具有明显降温效应,降温幅度在0.46~0.83℃之间,平均降温幅度为0.72℃;面积在0.5 km2以下的,具有较高植被覆盖度的绿地斑块有一定的降温效应,不具有较高植被覆盖度的绿地斑块降温效应不明显;（2）绿地斑块的周长、面积、形状指数和植被覆盖度与其周边建筑物的降温幅度没有显著的相关性。该结果表明,绿地的面积无论多大,其对周边环境的降温效应都限制在一定空间范围内;在布设城市绿地时分散型绿地比集中式大绿地对周边环境的总体降温效应更好。研究结果揭示了城市绿地对周边热环境影响的空间范围、降温幅度以及绿地景观参数与降温幅度的相关关系,可为城市规划建设及环境评价等提供科学参考。