液化四氟乙烷小孔泄漏试验研究

采用高速摄影技术,考察了液化四氟乙烷发生小孔泄漏时,其水平泄漏和垂直泄漏的初始云团演化行为、泄漏的质量流率、喷射速度和喷射角,并与理论计算公式进行了对比。结果表明:水平喷射两相云团尾部出现涡流,涡流大幅加快了云团向空气中扩散的速率;垂直喷射的两相云团在地面形成液池,液池大幅增加了液化气体向空气中蒸发的速率。水平泄漏试验的喷射角与容器内超压变化规律相似,泄放初期喷射角逐渐增大,经历一段平坦期,到泄放末期喷射角减小。水平泄漏和垂直泄漏的初始喷射速度分别为25 m/s和20 m/s,与理论值26.6 m/s基本吻合。水平泄漏的质量流率的试验值和理论值分别为0.0598 kg/s和0.0684 kg/s,垂直泄漏的分别为0.0472 kg/s和0.059 6 kg/s,结果对比基本吻合,推荐的泄漏质量流率和小孔喷射速度公式可以用于液化四氟乙烷小孔泄漏。     

超高速瞬态测试系统软硬件构架设计研究

目的研究采样频率为2~10 MHz的64通道超高速同步瞬态测试系统的设计技术,实现两类典型超高速瞬态测试系统的硬件架构设计与软件架构设计。方法一类采用PXI-Express高带宽总线和高速RAID磁盘阵列架构构建持续流盘存储的连续高速测试系统,另一类是采用大容量板载数据缓存和PXI总线事后下载传输数据的架构构造高速测试系统。在高性能测试软件设计方面,主要应用生产者/消费者结构与有限状态机相结合的软件架构进行高性能测试系统软件设计。结果目前64通道下基于持续流盘架构的测试系统受数据记录的速度限制系统最高采样频率仅达2.5 MHz,而基于板载缓存数据与PXI总线事后下载数据架构的测试系统最高采样频率可达10 MHz,测试时长可达5 s。结论当前两类架构的测试系统均可满足超高速瞬态测试需求,设计时需根据需求的最高采样频率决定使用的架构形式。     

Creating False Images: Stream Restoration in an Urban Setting

Stream restoration has become a multibillion dollar business with mixed results as to its efficacy. This case study utilizes pre‐ and post‐monitoring data from restoration projects on an urban stream to assess how well stream conditions, publicly stated project goals, and project implementation align. Our research confirms previous studies showing little communication among academic researchers and restoration practitioners as well as provides further evidence that restoration efforts tend to focus on small‐scale, specific sites without considering broader land use patterns. This study advances our understanding of restoration by documenting that although improving ecological conditions is a stated goal for restoration projects, the implemented measures are not always focused on those issues that are the most ecologically salient. What these projects have accomplished is to protect the built environment and promote positive public perception. We argue that these disconnects among publicized goals for restoration, the implemented features, and actual stream conditions may create a false image of what an ecologically stable stream looks like and therefore perpetuate a false sense of optimism about the feasibility of restoring urban streams.     

Dissolved organic sulfur in streams draining forested catchments in southern China

Dissolved organic sulfur (DOS) is an important fraction for sulfur mobilization in ecosystem. In this work stream waters were sampled in 25 forested sites in southern China to study the dissolved sulfur fractions. Dissolved sulfur was fractionated into dissolved organic sulfur (DOS) and inorganic sulfate (SO₄^2-) for 95 stream water samples. The results showed that the concentration of DOS ranged from 0 to 13.1 mg/L (average 1.3 mg/L) in all the streams. High concentrations of DOS in stream waters were found in the sites with high concentrations of sulfate. DOS constituted less than 60.1% of dissolved sulfur (average 17.9%). Statistical analysis showed that DOS concentration was correlated with SO₄^2- in streams waters and total sulfur in surface layer soils. The results also showed that DOS concentration in stream waters had a seasonal variation, but no trends were found with it. The implication was that the long term sulfur deposition had led the increase of the concentration and fraction of DOS in stream waters in acid rain prevailing regions     

长江上游典型农业源溪流溶存氧化亚氮(N2O)浓度特征及影响因素

随着农业非点源氮（N）污染的加剧,农田周边溪流成为重要的活性N汇和潜在的氧化亚氮（N₂O）排放源.为查明长江上游农业源溪流中溶存N₂O浓度的全年动态变化特征,于2014年12月~2015年10月开展紫色土丘陵区典型农田源头溪流N₂O浓度的连续采样观测,采用水-气顶空平衡-气相色谱法测定顶空气体中N₂O浓度,根据相关参数计算出本研究水体中的溶存N₂O浓度,并同步测定溪流水体物理化学指标,分析水中溶存N₂O浓度的主要影响因素.结果表明,长江上游紫色土丘陵区的典型农业源溪流的硝态氮（NO₃^--N）是最主要的活性N赋存形态（年均1.45 mg·L^-1）,溪流水体溶存N₂O质量浓度（以N计）全年平均为0.57 μg·L^-1（范围0.26~1.28 μg·L^-1）,冬、春、夏和秋季的均值分别为0.63、0.45、0.53和0.64 μg·L^-1,但季节间无显著差异.溪流水体溶存N₂O浓度全年都处于过度饱和状态（饱和度年平均为203.9%,范围109.7%~546.5%）,可见,农业源溪流全年均为潜在的N₂O释放源.溪流溶存N₂O浓度的变化主要由水体NO₃^--N浓度决定,N₂O的主要产生机制为反硝化作用;溪流季节平均N₂O饱和度在夏、秋季显著高于冬、春季,水中溶存N₂O饱和度的变化主要受水温和NO₃^--N浓度的共同影响.研究还发现农业源溪流中溶存N₂O浓度在4~10月（湿润季节）间波动明显,较强降雨可促使其水中NO₃^--N浓度在雨后短期内升高,进而促进水体反硝化作用,导致雨后溪流中溶存N₂O浓度的增加.     

STREAM DEPLETION BY WELLS IN THE SOUTH PLATTE BASIN-COLORADO1

The agricultural production from the Lower South Platte Basin in Colorado represents a significant portion of the state economy. Until the early 1950's the production had developed almost exclusively by use of river water. Drought conditions combined with improved well technology resulted in an inordinate amount of well development in the valley during the period 1952-56. These wells were used for supplemental supply in many cases, but the application of sprinkler irrigation brought many acres of here-to-fore dry land into irrigated production. As a result of the vast amounts of groundwater withdrawal by the newly developed wells, senior surface appropriators found a decreasing amount of water available for use in the streams. The legislature, observing the doctrine of prior appropriation, ruled that all surface and ground water in a tributary would be treated and administered as one resource. This, of course, spelled doom for the well-oriented segment of the economy. Analysis of a segment of the river on an inflow-outflow basis was made with careful determination of all inflow-outflow in the study reach to include correlations required to determine ungaged side-channel in-flow and unmetered irrigation wells. Results indicate that wells have intercepted normal return flows to the river resulting in a decreased amount of surface water during the irrigation season. Stream depletion appears to equal the expected consumptive use of well water which ranged between 40% to 50% of the groundwater extraction.     

A stochastic-advective transport model for NAPL dissolution and degradation in non-uniform flows in porous media

Remediation schemes for contaminated sites are often evaluated to assess their potential for source zone reduction of mass, or treatment of the contaminant between the source and a control plane (CP) to achieve regulatory limits. In this study, we utilize a stochastic stream tube model to explain the behavior of breakthrough curves (BTCs) across a CP. At the local scale, mass dissolution at the source is combined with an advection model with first-order decay for the dissolved plume. Field-scale averaging is then employed to account for spatial variation in mass within the source zone, and variation in the velocity field. Under the assumption of instantaneous mass transfer from the source to the moving liquid, semi-analytical expressions for the BTC and temporal moments are developed, followed by derivation of expressions for effective velocity, dispersion, and degradation coefficients using the method of moments. It is found that degradation strongly influences the behavior of moments and the effective parameters. While increased heterogeneity in the velocity field results in increased dispersion, degradation causes the center of mass of the plume to shift to earlier times, and reduces the dispersion of the BTC by lowering the concentrations in the tail. Modified definitions of effective parameters are presented for degrading solutes to account for the normalization constant (zeroth moment) that keeps changing with time or distance to the CP. It is shown that anomalous dispersion can result for high degradation rates combined with wide variation in velocity fluctuations. Implications of model results on estimating cleanup times and fulfillment of regulatory limits are discussed. Relating mass removal at the source to flux reductions past a control plane is confounded by many factors. Increased heterogeneity in velocity fields causes mass fluxes past a control plane to persist, however, aggressive remediation between the source and CP can reduce these fluxes.     

Accounting for the effect of concentration fluctuations on toxic load for gaseous releases of carbon dioxide

In Great Britain, advice on land-use planning decisions in the vicinity of major hazard sites and pipelines is provided to Local Planning Authorities by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE), based on quantified risk assessments of the risks to the public in the event of an accidental release. For potential exposures to toxic substances, the hazard and risk is estimated by HSE on the basis of a “toxic load”. For carbon dioxide (CO₂), this is calculated from the time-integral of the gas concentration to the power eight. As a consequence of this highly non-linear dependence of the toxic load on the concentration, turbulent concentration fluctuations that occur naturally in jets or plumes of CO₂ may have a significant effect on the calculated hazard ranges. Most dispersion models used for QRA only provide estimates of the time- or ensemble-averaged concentrations. If only mean concentrations are used to calculate the toxic load, and the effects of concentration fluctuations are ignored, there is a danger that toxic loads and hence hazard ranges will be significantly under-estimated.This paper explores a simple and pragmatic modification to the calculation procedure for CO₂ toxic load calculations. It involves the assumption that the concentration fluctuates by a factor of two with a prescribed square-wave variation over time. To assess the validity of this methodology, two simple characteristic flows are analysed: the free jet and the dense plume (or gravity current). In the former case, an empirical model is used to show that the factor-of-two approach provides conservative estimates of the hazard range. In the latter case, a survey of the literature indicates that there is at present insufficient information to come to any definite conclusions.Recommendations are provided for future work to investigate the concentration fluctuation behaviour in dense CO₂ plumes. This includes further analysis of existing dense gas dispersion data, measurements of concentration fluctuations in ongoing large-scale CO₂ release experiments, and numerical simulations.     

Diverging response patterns of terrestrial and aquatic species to hydromorphological restoration

Although experiences with ecological restoration continue to accumulate, the effectiveness of restoration for biota remains debated. We complemented a traditional taxonomic analysis approach with information on 56 species traits to uncover the responses of 3 aquatic (fish, macroinvertebrates, macrophytes) and 2 terrestrial (carabid beetles, floodplain vegetation) biotic groups to 43 hydromorphological river restoration projects in Germany. All taxonomic groups responded positively to restoration, as shown by increased taxonomic richness (10–164%) and trait diversity (habitat, dispersal and mobility, size, form, life history, and feeding groups) (15–120%). Responses, however, were stronger for terrestrial than aquatic biota, and, contrary to our expectation, taxonomic responses were stronger than those of traits. Nevertheless, trait analysis provided mechanistic insights into the drivers of community change following restoration. Trait analysis for terrestrial biota indicated restoration success was likely enhanced by lateral connectivity and reestablishment of dynamic processes in the floodplain. The weaker response of aquatic biota suggests recovery was hindered by the persistence of stressors in the aquatic environment, such as degraded water quality, dispersal constraints, and insufficient hydromorphological change. Therefore, river restoration requires combined local- and regional-scale approaches to maximize the response of both aquatic and terrestrial organisms. Due to the contrasting responses of aquatic and terrestrial biota, the planning and assessment of river restoration outcomes should consider effects on both components of riverine landscapes.