Effects of soil properties, mulch and NPK fertilizer on maize yields and nutrient budgets on ferralitic soils in southern Benin

Four on-farm experiments examined whether modest applications of fertilizers in combination with prunings from native agroforestry trees would be an alternative to maintain the fertility of ferralitic soils in Benin. An application of about 1.9 t ha⁻¹ dry matter of mulch of Senna siamea combined with 30 kg N ha⁻¹, 22 kg P ha⁻¹ and 25 kg K ha⁻¹ as compound fertilizer was compared with (1) 60 kg N ha⁻¹, 43 kg P ha⁻¹ and 50 kg K ha⁻¹ as compound fertilizer alone, (2) mulch of S. siamea alone (about 3.2 t ha⁻¹ dry matter), and (3) a control treatment. Criteria were soil properties, yields, nutrient uptakes, and nutrient budgets. Application of sole mulch had no significant effects (P>0.05) on maize yields, while combined application of prunings and NPK fertilizers or sole NPK increased yields significantly (P<0.05). The most limiting nutrient was P. The local maize cultivar was efficient in P uptake, but not in internal nutrient utilization efficiency; mulch increased significantly the internal P utilization efficiency (P<0.05). Soil properties were interpreted with the QUEFTS (quantitative evaluation of the fertility of tropical soils) computer program. The predicted and measured yields were almost the same for maize without NPK. The measured responses to NPK were much lower than the responses calculated by QUEFTS. The calculated nutrient budgets were split into balances for available nutrients and for those not immediately available (NIA). Nutrient budgets were negative for the control and sole mulch treatments, and positive for the NPK treatments. Mulch improved the balances of NIA nutrients. The present experiment could not prove that combining NPK with mulch is the best option for sustainable agriculture. It may be more economical to apply lower rates of fertilizer to local maize than those applied in the two NPK treatments in the present study.     

Mobilization of heavy metals from contaminated paddy soil by EDDS,EDTA, and elemental sulfur

For enhanced phytoextraction, mobilization of heavy metals (HMs) from the soil solid phase to soil pore water is an important process. A pot incubation experiment mimicking field conditions was conducted to investigate the performance of three soil additives in mobilizing HMs from contaminated paddy soil (Gleyi-Stagnic Anthrosol): the [S, S]-isomer of ethylenediamine disuccinate (EDDS) with application rates of 2.3, 4.3, and 11.8 mmol kg⁻¹ of soil, ethylenediamine tetraacetate (EDTA; 1.4, 3.8, and 7.5 mmol kg⁻¹), and elemental sulfur (100, 200, and 400 mmol kg⁻¹). Temporal changes in soil pore water HM and dissolved organic carbon concentrations and pH were monitored for a period of 119 days. EDDS was the most effective additive in mobilizing soil Cu. However, EDDS was only effective during the first 24 to 52 days, and was readily biodegraded with a half-life of 4.1 to 8.7 days. The effectiveness of EDDS decreased at the highest application rate, most probably as a result of depletion of the readily desorbable Cu pool in soil. EDTA increased the concentrations of Cu, Pb, Zn, and Cd in the soil pore water, and remained effective during the whole incubation period due to its persistence. The highest rate of sulfur application led to a decrease in pH to around 4. This increased the pore water HM concentrations, especially those of Zn and Cd. Concentrations of HMs in the soil pore water can be regulated to a large extent by choosing the proper application rate of EDDS, EDTA, or sulfur. Hence, a preliminary work such as our pot experiment in combination with further plant experiments (not included in this study) will provide a good tool to evaluate the applicability of different soil additives for enhanced phytoextraction of a specific soil.     

Use of reactive materials to bind phosphorus

Phosphorus (P) losses from agricultural soils have caused surface water quality impairment in many regions of the world, including The Netherlands. Due to the large amounts of P accumulated in Dutch soils, the generic fertilizer and manure policy will not be sufficient to reach in time the surface water quality standards of the European Water Framework Directive. Additional measures must be considered to further reduce P enrichment of surface waters. One option is to immobilize P in soils or manure or to trap P when it moves through the landscape by using reactive materials with a large capacity to retain P. We characterized and tested two byproducts of the process of purification of deep groundwater for drinking water that could be used as reactive materials: iron sludge and iron-coated sand. Both materials contain low amounts of inorganic contaminants, which also have a low (bio)availability, and bound a large amount of P. We could describe sorption of P to the iron sludge in batch experiments well with the kinetic Freundlich equation (Q = × t (m) × C(n)). Kinetics had a large influence on P sorption in batch and column experiments and should be taken into account when iron-containing materials are tested for their capability to immobilize or trap P. A negative aspect of the iron sludge is its low hydraulic conductivity; even when mixed with pure sand to a mixture containing 20% sludge, the conductivity was very low, and only 10% sludge may be needed before application is possible in filters or barriers for removing P from groundwater. Due to its much higher hydraulic conductivity, iron-coated sand has greater potential for use under field conditions. Immobilizing P could be an option for using iron sludge as a reactive material.     

Temporal variability in trace metal solubility in a paddy soil not reflected in uptake by rice (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Oryza sativa</Emphasis> L.)

Alternating flooding and drainage conditions have a strong influence on redox chemistry and the solubility of trace metals in paddy soils. However, current knowledge of how the effects of water management on trace metal solubility are linked to trace metal uptake by rice plants over time is still limited. Here, a field-contaminated paddy soil was subjected to two flooding and drainage cycles in a pot experiment with two rice plant cultivars, exhibiting either high or low Cd accumulation characteristics. Flooding led to a strong vertical gradient in the redox potential (Eh). The pH and Mn, Fe, and dissolved organic carbon concentrations increased with decreasing Eh and vice versa. During flooding, trace metal solubility decreased markedly, probably due to sulfide mineral precipitation. Despite its low solubility, the Cd content in rice grains exceeded the food quality standards for both cultivars. Trace metal contents in different rice plant tissues (roots, stem, and leaves) increased at a constant rate during the first flooding and drainage cycle but decreased after reaching a maximum during the second cycle. As such, the high temporal variability in trace metal solubility was not reflected in trace metal uptake by rice plants over time. This might be due to the presence of aerobic conditions and a consequent higher trace metal solubility near the root surface, even during flooding. Trace metal solubility in the rhizosphere should be considered when linking water management to trace metal uptake by rice over time.     

Ni adsorption and Ni-Al LDH precipitation in a sandy aquifer: an experimental and mechanistic modeling study

Mining activities and industries have created nickel (Ni) contaminations in many parts of the world. The objective of this study is to increase our understanding of Ni adsorption and Nickel-Aluminium Layered Double Hydroxide (Ni-Al LDH) precipitation to reduce Ni mobility in a sandy soil aquifer. At pH ≥7.2 both adsorption and Ni-Al LDH precipitation occurred. In batch experiments with the sandy soil up to 70% of oxalate-extractable Al was taken up in LDH formation during 56 days. In a long term column experiment 99% of influent Ni was retained at pH 7.5 due to Ni adsorption (≈34%) and Ni-Al LDH precipitation (≈66%) based on mechanistic reactive transport modeling. The subsequent leaching at pH 6.5 could be largely attributed to desorption. Our results show that even in sandy aquifers with relatively low Al content, Ni-Al LDH precipitation is a promising mechanism to immobilize Ni.     

Improving ecological risk assessment by including bioavailability into species sensitivity distributions: an example for plants exposed to nickel in soil

The variability of species sensitivity distribution (SSD) due to contaminant bioavailability in soil was explored by using nickel as metal of concern. SSDs of toxicity test results of Avena sativa L. originating from different soils and expressed as total content and available (0.01 M CaCl2) extractable concentration were compared to SSDs for terrestrial plants derived from literature toxicity data. Also the 'free' nickel (Ni2+) concentration was calculated and compared. The results demonstrated that SSDs based on total nickel content highly depend on the experimental conditions set up for toxicity testing (i.e. selected soil and pH value) and thus on metal bioavailability in soil, resulting in an unacceptable uncertainty for ecological risk estimation. The use in SSDs of plant toxicity data expressed as 0.01 M CaCl2 extractable metal strongly reduced the uncertainty in the SSD curve and thus can improve the ERA procedure remarkably by taking bioavailability into account.     

Relationship between metal speciation in soil solution and metal adsorption at the root surface of ryegrass

The total metal content of the soil or total metal concentration in the soil solution is not always a good indicator for metal availability to plants. Therefore, several speciation techniques have been developed that measure a defined fraction of the total metal concentration in the soil solution. In this study the Donnan Membrane Technique (DMT) was used to measure free metal ion concentrations in CaCl(2) extractions (to mimic the soil solution, and to work under standardized conditions) of 10 different soils, whereas diffusive gradients in thin-films (DGT) and scanning chronopotentiometry (SCP) were used to measure the sum of free and labile metal concentrations in the CaCl(2) extracts. The DGT device was also exposed directly to the (wetted) soil (soil-DGT). The metal concentrations measured with the speciation techniques are related to the metal adsorption at the root surface of ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), to be able to subsequently predict metal uptake. In most cases the metal adsorption related pH-dependently to the metal concentrations measured by DMT, SCP, and DGT in the CaCl(2) extract. However, the relationship between metal adsorption at the root surface and the metal concentrations measured by the soil-DGT was not-or only slightly-pH dependent. The correlations between metal adsorption at the root surface and metal speciation detected by different speciation techniques allow discussion about rate limiting steps in biouptake and the contribution of metal complexes to metal bioavailability.