A Small‐Scale Land‐Sparing Approach to Conserving Biological Diversity in Tropical Agricultural Landscapes

Two contrasting strategies have been proposed for conserving biological diversity while meeting the increasing demand for agricultural products: land sparing and land sharing production systems. Land sparing involves increasing yield to reduce the amount of land needed for agriculture, whereas land‐sharing agricultural practices incorporate elements of native ecosystems into the production system itself. Although the conservation value of these systems has been extensively debated, empirical studies are lacking. We compared bird communities in shade coffee, a widely practiced land‐sharing system in which shade trees are maintained within the coffee plantation, with bird communities in a novel, small‐scale, land‐sparing coffee‐production system (integrated open canopy or IOC coffee) in which farmers obtain higher yields under little or no shade while conserving an area of forest equal to the area under cultivation. Species richness and diversity of forest‐dependent birds were higher in the IOC coffee farms than in the shade coffee farms, and community composition was more similar between IOC coffee and primary forest than between shade coffee and primary forest. Our study represents the first empirical comparison of well‐defined land sparing and land sharing production systems. Because IOC coffee farms can be established by allowing forest to regenerate on degraded land, widespread adoption of this system could lead to substantial increases in forest cover and carbon sequestration without compromising agricultural yield or threatening the livelihoods of traditional small farmers. However, we studied small farms (<5 ha); thus, our results may not generalize to large‐scale land‐sharing systems. Furthermore, rather than concluding that land sparing is generally superior to land sharing, we suggest that the optimal approach depends on the crop, local climate, and existing land‐use patterns. Un Método para Reservar Tierras a Pequeña Escala para Conservar la Biodiversidad en Paisajes Agrícolas Tropicales     

ENERGY SOURCES IN CHINA - PRESENT AND FUTURE

In 1979 China produced 640 million tons coal equivalent (TCE) of energy. Although this was sufficient to meet its demand of 586 million TCE in 1979, the Chinese Government is anticipating a difficult struggle for energy self-sufficiency in the next few years as demand increases rapidly owing to modernization efforts in the Chinese economy. The exploitation of coal will have highest priority in the Chinese energy development plan, followed by hydroelectricity. Petroleum and natural gas will be used mainly as raw materials for the chemical industry and as fuel for internal combustion engines. The institution of conservation measures coupled with necessary adjustments in the economic and industrial structures will also be given special attention in the energy plan. New and renewable resources of energy such as biomass, solar, wind, tidal wave and geothermal energies have played important roles in the various regions of the country where conditions are favourable and will continue to be developed. Nuclear energy will also be developed in industrially developed areas with acute shortages of power. Overall, it is projected that in the next twenty years the production of conventional energy must be doubled in order to satisfy the increasing demand. Capital resources remain the principal obstacle in such efforts. China will need external financial assistance, in the form of joint ventures, compensation trade or long-term loans to develop the abundant but relatively unexploited energy resources. En 1979, la quantité d'énergie produite en Chine représentait 640 millions de tonnes-équivalent charbon (tec). Bien cette quantité fut suffisante pour répondre à une demande de 586 millions de tec en 1979, le Gouvernement de la Chine anticipe une lutte soutenue pour arriver à une auto-suffisance en matière d énergie dans les quelques prochaines années alors que la demande augmente rapidement dû aux efforts de modernisation de l'économie chinoise. Dans le plan énergétique de la Chine, l'expoitation du charbon gardera une place de premier plan suivi de l'hydro-électricité. Le pétrole et le gaz naturel seront employés principalement comme matières premières dans l'industrie chimique et comme carburant pour les engins à combustion interne. Une attention particulière sera accordée dans le plan énergétique à l'institution de mesures de conservation, alliées aux ajustements nécessaires dans les structures économiques et industrielles. Les sources d'énergie nouvelles et renouvelables, telles que la biomasse, les énergies solaire, éolienne, marémotrice et géothermique ont joué des rôles importants dans de nombreuses régions du pays où les conditions sont favorables et continueront à être mises en valeur. L'utilisation de l'énergie nuclèaire sera aussi intensifiée dans les régions industriellement développées dans lesquelles se fait sentir de manière aiguë la penurie d'énergie électrique. Dans l'ensemble, on prévoit que dans les vingt prochaines années, la production conventionnelle d'énergie doit être doublée pour répondre à une demande droissante. Les capitaux demeurent un obstacle sérieux à ces efforts. La Chine aura besoin d'assistance financière extérieure sous forme d'associations en participation, d'échanges compensatoires, de prèts à long terme afin de mettre en valeur ses ressources énergétiques abondantes mais relativement inexploitées. En 1979 China produjo 640 millones de tonelades equivalentes de carbón que fue suficiente para satisfacer la demanda de energia de aquel año. Sin embargo el gobierno anticipa dificultades en mantener la autosuficiencia en energia en los próximos años debido al rápido aumento de la demanda causada por la modernización de la economía. Dentro del plan de desarrollo energético, la explotación del carbón tendrá la máxima prioridad seguido por la hidroelectricidad. El petróleo y el gas natural serán usados principalmente como insumo en la industria química y como combustible en los motores de combustión interna. Las medidas de conservación de energia y ajustes en la estructura de la industria y la economia en general recibirán especial atención. Los recursos nuevos y renovables han jugado un rol importante en varias regiones del país y conti nuarán siendos desarrollados. Le energia nuclear también se desarrollará en las áreas industriales que sufren carestia en electricidad. En general, se proyecta que en los próximos 20 años se doblará la producción de energia convencional para satisfacer la demanda creciente La falta de capital será la restricción principal para tal esfuerzo. China necesitará en consecuencia asistencia financiera externa en la forma de inversiones compartidas y préstamos a largo plazo para desarrollar los abundantes pero relativamente inexplotados recursos energéticos.     

THE MARKET FOR MANGANESE DERIVED FROM DEEPSEA NODULES

The potential markets for the manganese which may be derived from deep-sea nodules are assessed. Estimates are made of current consumption patterns of manganese in various forms – standard ferromanganese, low carbon ferromanganese and manganese metal – by the ferrous and nonferrous metallurgical industries. The effects of technological developments, expected to occur between 1980 and 1990, and potential price reductions on the demand for manganese are analysed separately and the combined effects of market growth, technological change, and price reductions are synthesized. Cet article évalue des marches potentiels pour le manganèse qui peut être extrait des nodules du fond des océans. Ces estimations sont basées sur les tendances actuelles de la consommation du manganèse dans ses diverses formes – ferromanganèse normal, ferromanganèse à basse teneur en carbone et manganèse métallique – par les industries des métaux ferreux et non ferreux. Les effects des progrès techniques qui sont attendus entre 1980 et 1990 et la diminution possible des prix du manganèse sont analysés séparément. L'article fait aussi la synthèse des effects combinés de la croissance du marché, des changements technologiques et de la diminution des prix. En este artículo se evalúa el mercado potencial para el manganeso derivado de los nódulos obtenidos del fondo marino. Se analiza las tendencies actuales del consumo de manganeso en sus diversas formas – ferromanganeso estandard, ferromanganeso de bajo contenido de carbón y metal manganeso – por las industries metalúrgicas. Los efectos sobre la demanda de manganeso por el desarrollo tecnológico durante 1980 a 1990 y de la reducción potencial del precio, son analizados separadamente. Se evalúa también el efector combinado del crecimiento del mercado, el cambio tecnológico y las reducciones de precio.     

Biodiversity Conservation in Local Planning

Abstract:  Local land-use policy is increasingly being recognized as fundamental to biodiversity conservation in the United States. Many planners and conservation scientists have called for broader use of planning and regulatory tools to support the conservation of biodiversity at local scales. Yet little is known about the pervasiveness of these practices. We conducted an on-line survey of county, municipal, and tribal planning directors (n = 116 ) in 3 geographic regions of the United States: metropolitan Seattle, Washington; metropolitan Des Moines, Iowa; and the Research Triangle, North Carolina. Our objectives were to gauge the extent to which local planning departments address biodiversity conservation and to identify factors that facilitate or hinder conservation actions in local planning. We found that biodiversity conservation was seldom a major consideration in these departments. Staff time was mainly devoted to development mandates and little time was spent on biodiversity conservation. Regulations requiring conservation actions that might benefit biodiversity were uncommon, with the exception of rules governing water quality in all 3 regions and the protection of threatened and endangered species in the Seattle region. Planning tools that could enhance habitat conservation were used infrequently. Collaboration across jurisdictions was widespread, but rarely focused on conservation. Departments with a conservation specialist on staff tended to be associated with higher levels of conservation actions. Jurisdictions in the Seattle region also reported higher levels of conservation action, largely driven by state and federal mandates. Increased funding was most frequently cited as a factor that would facilitate greater consideration of biodiversity in local planning. There are numerous opportunities for conservation biologists to play a role in improving conservation planning at local scales.     

Sorption of Isoxaflutole Diketonitrile Degradate (DKN) and Dicamba in Unsaturated Soil

When analyzing the sorption characteristics of weakly sorbing or labile pesticides, batch methods tend to yield a high margin of error attributable to errors in concentration measurement and to degradation, respectively. This study employs a recently developed unsaturated transient flow method to determine the sorption of isoxaflutole's herbicidally active diketonitrile degradate (DKN) and dicamba. A 20-cm acrylic column was packed with soils with varied texture that had been uniformly treated with ¹⁴C-labeled chemical.

The antecedent solution herbicide in equilibrium with sorbed phase herbicide was displaced by herbicide-free water, which was infiltrated into the column. Sorption coefficients, K_d, were obtained from a plot of total herbicide concentration in the soil versus water content in the region where the antecedent solution accumulated. DKN K_d values were ～2–3 times (average K_d = 0.71 L kg^?1) greater using the unsaturated transient flow method as compared to the batch equilibration method in clay loam (K_d = 0.33 L kg^?1), but similar for the two methods in sand (0.12 vs 0.09 L kg^?1) soils. Dicamba K_d values were 3 times greater using the unsaturated transient flow method as compared to the batch equilibration method in the clay loam soil (0.38 vs 0.13 L kg^?1), however, the K_d values were the same for the two methods in the sand (～0.06 L kg^?1). This demonstrates that to determine sorption coefficients for labile hydrophilic pesticides, an unsaturated transient flow method may be a suitable alternative to the batch method. In fact, it may be better in cases where transport models have overpredicted herbicide leaching when batch sorption coefficients have been used.     

Comparing Spatially Explicit Ecological and Social Values for Natural Areas to Identify Effective Conservation Strategies

Abstract: Consideration of the social values people assign to relatively undisturbed native ecosystems is critical for the success of science‐based conservation plans. We used an interview process to identify and map social values assigned to 31 ecosystem services provided by natural areas in an agricultural landscape in southern Australia. We then modeled the spatial distribution of 12 components of ecological value commonly used in setting spatial conservation priorities. We used the analytical hierarchy process to weight these components and used multiattribute utility theory to combine them into a single spatial layer of ecological value. Social values assigned to natural areas were negatively correlated with ecological values overall, but were positively correlated with some components of ecological value. In terms of the spatial distribution of values, people valued protected areas, whereas those natural areas underrepresented in the reserve system were of higher ecological value. The habitats of threatened animal species were assigned both high ecological value and high social value. Only small areas were assigned both high ecological value and high social value in the study area, whereas large areas of high ecological value were of low social value, and vice versa. We used the assigned ecological and social values to identify different conservation strategies (e.g., information sharing, community engagement, incentive payments) that may be effective for specific areas. We suggest that consideration of both ecological and social values in selection of conservation strategies can enhance the success of science‐based conservation planning.     

Use of Modified Threat Reduction Assessments to Estimate Success of Conservation Measures within and Adjacent to Kruger National Park,South Africa

Abstract: The importance of biodiversity as natural capital for economic development and sustaining human welfare is well documented. Nevertheless, resource degradation rates and persistent deterioration of human welfare in developing countries is increasingly worrisome. Developing effective monitoring and evaluation schemes and measuring biodiversity loss continue to pose unique challenges, particularly when there is a paucity of historical data. Threat reduction assessment (TRA) has been proposed as a method to measure conservation success and as a proxy measurement of conservation impact, monitoring threats to resources rather than changes to biological parameters themselves. This tool is considered a quick, practical alternative to more cost‐ and time‐intensive approaches, but has inherent weaknesses. I conducted TRAs to evaluate the effectiveness of Kruger National Park (KNP) and Limpopo Province, South Africa, in mitigating threats to biodiversity from 1994 to 2004 in 4 geographical areas. I calculated TRA index values in these TRAs by using the original scoring developed by Margoluis and Salafsky (2001) and a modified scoring system that assigned negative mitigation values to incorporate new or worsening threats. Threats were standardized to allow comparisons across the sites. Modified TRA index values were significantly lower than values derived from the original scoring exercise. Five of the 11 standardized threats were present in all 4 assessment areas, 2 were restricted to KNP, 2 to Limpopo Province, and 2 only to Malamulele municipality. These results indicate, first, the need to integrate negative mitigation values into TRA scoring. By including negative values, investigators will be afforded a more accurate picture of biodiversity threats and of temporal and spatial trends across sites. Where the original TRA scoring was used to measure conservation success, reevaluation of these cases with the modified scoring is recommended. Second, practitioners must carefully consider the need and consequences of generalizing threats into generic categories for comparative assessments. Finally, continued refinement of the methodology and its extension to facilitate the transfer of successful conservation strategies is needed.     

Risk Factors for Death in the 27 March 1994 Georgia and Alabama Tornadoes

Field surveys were made one week after tornadoes killed 40 persons and injured over 300 in rural regions of Alabama and Georgia, USA, on 27 March 1994. Surveys were completed for samples of 20 persons who were killed and 31 persons who were in the paths of the tornadoes but survived to determine whether there were differences in personal characteristics, behavior or location between the two groups. Persons who died were significantly older than persons who survived, more likely to be in mobile homes or in rooms above ground with windows, less likely to be watching television before the tornado, and were aware of the approaching tornado for less time than survivors. There was no difference in gender, race, marital status, education, disability or previous experience with tornadoes between those who died and survivors.     

Tools for Groundwater Protection Planning: An Example from McHenry County, Illinois, USA

/ This paper presents an approach for producing aquifer sensitivity maps from three-dimensional geologic maps, called stack-unit maps. Stack-unit maps depict the succession of geologic materials to a given depth, and aquifer sensitivity maps interpret the successions according totheir ability to transmit potential contaminants. Using McHenry County, Illinois, as a case study, stack-unit maps and an aquifer sensitivity assessment were made to help land-use planners, public health officials, consultants, developers, and the public make informed decisions regarding land use. A map of aquifer sensitivity is important for planning because the county is one of the fastest growing counties in the nation, and highly vulnerable sand and gravel aquifers occur within 6 m of ground surface over 75% of its area. The aquifer sensitivity map can provide guidance to regulators seeking optimal protection of groundwater resources where these resources are particularly vulnerable. In addition, the map can be used to help officials direct waste-disposal and industrial facilities and other sensitive land-use practices to areas where the least damage is likely to occur, thereby reducing potential future liabilities. KEY WORDS: Geologic mapping; Groundwater; Aquifers; Aquifer sensitivity; Land-use planning