Evolution of particulate regulation in China--prospects and challenges of exposure-based control

China's urban and rural populations face very serious health risks from combustion particles. Major sources of exposure to inhalable particulates include the burning solid fuels (biomass and coal) for household cooking and heating, coal-fired industrial and residential boilers, tobacco smoking, and diesel motor vehicles. China began to address particulate pollution problems over 25 years ago and has implemented a series of progressively more aggressive policies. This paper reviews the successes and limitations of past and existing policies for particulate controls, as well as the effects of China's economic reforms and energy policies on particulate exposure and pollution management. We examine the challenge of emissions reporting, required as part of both China's pollution levy system and emerging system for "total emissions control." Finally, we discuss practical steps toward exposure-based regulation of particulates, which would take advantage of the high cost-effectiveness for lifesaving of controlling particulate exposure from household and neighborhood sources relative to that of controlling exposure from industrial sources.     

Policy uses of particulate exposure estimates

This paper reviews the uses of particulate exposure estimates for science and policy. We propose a set of normative factors to guide the selection and application of various approaches for exposure assessment. For exposure estimates intended for use in support of the development or air pollution regulations or selection of control strategies, the proposed criteria include--compatibility with policy scope and scale, cost-effectiveness, characterization of uncertainty, political and institutional feasibility, and sensitivity to framing. For exposure assessment in support of epidemiological research, key criteria are-compatability with the specific hypothesis being tested, and compatibility with the temporal and spatial scale of analysis. The various major approaches for estimation of exposure--direct and indirect measurement, empirical and physical modeling--are catalogued and compared with these proposed criteria.